THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT 


\y  /y    //j  /''"    ' 


SCHOOL  EDITION.— With  Denman's  Questions. 


IMPROVEMENT 


THE    MIND 


BY   ISAAC   WATTS,   D.  D. 


"  Whoever  has  tne  care  of  instructing  others,  may  be  charged  with  defi. 
ciency  in  his  duty,  if  this  Boolf  is  not  recommended,"— Dr.  Johnson. 


NEW-YORK: 
PUBLISHED  BY  A.  S.   BARNES  &  00 

CINCINNATI:      H.    W.    DERBY   §•    CO. 

1849. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1849, 
By  a.  S.  BARNES  &  CO. 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for 
the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

Page. 
The  Introduction, 5 

Chap.  I. — General  Rules  for  the  Improvement  of 

Knowledge, 7 

Chap.  II. — Five  Methods  of  Improving,  described, 
and  compared;  viz.  Observation,  Reading,  In- 
struction by  Lectures,  Conversation,  and  Stu-        « 
dy,  with  their  several  Advantages  and  Defects,     21 

Chap.  III. — Of  Observation,  either  by  the  Senses 

or  the  Mmd, 22 

Chap.  IV. — Of  Reading  and  Books,  with  Direc- 
tions relating  thereto 38 

Chap.  V. — The  Judgment  of  Books,  both  Approba- 
tion and   Censure, 49 

Chap.  VI. — Of  living  Instructions  and  Lectures,  of 

Teachers  and  Learners, 61 

Chap.  VII. — Of  learning  a  Language,  particularly 

the  Latin, 65 

Chap.  VIII. — Of  inquiring  into  the  Sense  and 
Meaning  of  any  Writer  or  Speaker,  whether 
human  or  divine, 73 

Chap.  IX. — Of  Conversation,  and  profiting  by  it, 

and  of  Persons  fit  or  unfit  for  free  Converse,  .     11 

Chap.  X. — Of  Disputes,  and  general  Rules  rela- 
ting to  them, 92 

Chap.  XI. — Of  Socratical  Disputation,  by  Ques- 
tion and  Answer, 103 

Chap.  XII. — of  Forensic  Disputes,  in  Courts  of 

Justice  or  Public  Assemblies, 106 

Chap.  XIII. — Of  Academic  or  Scholastic  Disputes, 
and  tlie  Rules  of  them,  and  how  far  they  may 
be  useful, 109 


IV  CONTENTS. 

Page 
Chap.  XIV.— Of  Study,  or  Meditation,  and  the 
final  Determination  of  Things  by  our  own  Judg- 
ment,   118 

Chap.  XV.— Of  fixing  the  Attention, 129 

Chap.  XVI. — Of  enlarging  the  Capacity  of  the 

Mind, 133 

Chap.  XVII. — Of  the  Memory,  and  the  Improve- 
ment thereof, 150 

Chap.  XVIII. — Of  determining  a  Question;  several 

Cautions  about  it;  of  Reason  and  Revelation; 

■  of  Argument  and  Ridicule;  of  Assent  only  in 

Proportion  to  Evidence,  &c 171 

Chap.  XIX. — Of  inquiring  into  Causes  and  Effects,   189 
Chap.  XX. — Of  the  Sciences,  and  their  Uses  in 

particular  Professions, 192 


PART  II. 

The  Introduction, 221 

Chap.  I. — Methods  of  teaching,  and  reading  Lec- 
tures,   223 

Chap.  II, — Of  an  instructive  Style, 229 

Chap.  III. — Of  convincing  of  Truth,  or  delivering 

from  Error, 235 

Chap.  IV.— Tlie  Use  and  Abuse  of  Authority,  .  242 
Chap.  V. — Of  managing  the  Prejudices  of  Men,  .  251 
Chap.  VI.— Of  Instruction  by  Preaching,  .  .  .  260 
Chap.  VII. — Of  writing  Books  for  the  Public,  .  .  272 
Chap.  VIII. — Of  writing  and  reading  Controver- 
sies,   276 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  MIND. 


PART  I. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR    THE    ATTAINMENT    OF    USEFUL    KNOW- 
LEDGE. 


INTRODUCTION. 

No  man  is  obliged  to  learn  and  know  every  thing; 
this  can  neither  be  sought  nor  required,  for  it  is  utterly 
impossible;  yet  all  persons  are  under  some  obligation  to 
improve  their  own  understanding;  otherwise  it  will  be  a 
barren  desert,  or  a  forest  overgrown  with  weeds  and 
brambles.  Universal  ignorance  or  infinite  errors  will 
overspread  the  mind  which  is  utterly  neglected,  and  lies 
witliout  any  cultivation. 

Skill  in  tlie  sciences  is  indeed  the  business  and  pro- 
fession but  of  a  small  part  of  mankind;  but  there  are 
many  ntiiers  placed  in  such  an  exalted  rank  in  the  world, 
as  allows  them  much  leisure  and  large  opportunities  to 
cultivate  their  reason,  and  to  beautify  and  enrich  their 
minds  with  various  knowledge.  Even  the  lower  orders 
of  men  have  particular  callings  in  life,  wherein  they 
ougiit  to  acquire  a  just  degree  of  skill;  and  this  is  not  to 
be  done  well,  witliout  thinking  and  reasoning  about  them. 

Tlie  common  duties  and  benefits  of  society,  which  be- 
long to  every  man  living,  as  we  are  social  creatures,  and 
even  our  native  and  necessary  relations  to  a  family,  a 
neighbourliood  or  government,  oblige  all  persons  what- 
1* 


b  INTRODUCTION. 

soever  to  use  their  reasoning  powers  upon  a  thousand 
occasions;  every  hour  of  hfe  calls  for  some  regular  exer- 
cise of  our  judgment,  as  to  time  and  things,  persons  and 
actions:  without  a  prudent  and  discreet  determination 
in  matters  before  us,  we  shall  be  plunged  into  perpetual 
errors  in  our  conduct.  Now  that  which  should  always 
be  practised  must  at  some  time  be  learned. 

JJesides,  every  son  and  daughter  of  Adam  has  a  most 
important  concern  in  the  aftairs  of  the  life  to  come,  and 
therefore  it  is  a  matter  of  the  highest  moment,  for  every 
one  to  understand,  to  judge,  and  to  reason  right  about 
the  things  of  religion.  It  is  vain  for  any  to  say,  we  have 
no  leisure  time  fur  it.  The  daily  intervals  of  time,  and 
vacancies  from  necessary  labour,  together  with  the  one 
day  in  seven  in  t!ie  Cluistian  world,  allows  sufficient 
time  for  this,  if  nien  would  but  apply  themselves  to  it 
with  half  so  much  zeal  and  diligence  as  tliey  do  to  the 
trifles  and  amusements  of  this  life,  and  it  would  turn  to 
infinitely  better  account. 

Thus  it  appears  to  be  the  necessary  duty  and  the  in- 
terest of  every  person  living,  to  improve  his  understand- 
ing, to  inform  his  judgment,  to  treasure  up  useful  know- 
ledge, and  to  acquire  the  skill  of  good  reasoning,  as  far 
as  his  station,  capacity,  and  circumstances  furnish  him 
with  proper  means  for  it.  Our  mistakes  in  judgment 
may  plunge  us  into  much  folly  and  guilt  in  practice. 
By  acting  without  thought  or  reason,  we  dishonour  the 
God  that  made  us  reasonable  creatures,  we  often  become 
injurious  to  our  neighbours,  kindred,  or  friends,  and  we 
bring  sin  and  misery  upon  ourselves;  for  we  are  accounta- 
ble to  God,  our  judge,  for  every  part  of  our  irregular  and 
mistaken  conduct,  where  he  hath  given  us  sufficient  ad- 
vantages to  guard  against  those  mistakes. 


GENERAL  RULES,  ScC.  7 

CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  RULES  FOR  THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  KNOWLEDGE.* 

Rule  1. — Deeply  possess  your  mind  with  the  vast 
importance  of  a  good  judgment,  and  the  rich  and  inesti- 
mable advantage  of  right  reasoning.  Review  the  in- 
stances of  your  own  misconduct  in  hfe;  think  seriously 
with  yourselves  how  many  follies  and  sorrows  you  had 
escaped,  and  how  mucii  guilt  and  misery  you  had  pre- 
vented, if  from  your  early  years  you  had  but  taken  due 
pains  to  judge  aright  concerning  persons,  times,  and 
things.  Tliis  will  awaken  you  with  lively  vigour  to 
address  yourselves  to  tiie  work  of  improving  your  reason- 
ing powers,  and  seizing  every  opportunity  and  advantage 
for  tliat  end. 

II.  Consider  the  weaknesses,  frailties,  and  mistakes  of 
human  nature  in  general,  which  arise  from  the  very  con- 
stitution of  a  soul  united  to  an  animal  body,  and  sub- 
jected to  many  inconveniences  thereby.  Consider  the 
many  additional  weaknesses,  mistakes,  and  frailties, 
which  are  derived  from  our  original  apostasy  and  fall 
from  a  state  of  innocence:  how  much  our  powers  of  un- 
derstanding are  yet  mors  darkened,  enfeebled,  and  im- 
posed upon  by  our  senses,  our  fancies,  our  unruly  pas- 
sions, &,c.  Consider  the  depth  and  difficulty  of  many 
truths,  and  the  flattering  appearances  of  falsehood, 
whence  arises  an  infinite  variety  of  dangers  to  which 
we  are  exposed  in  our  judgment  of  things.  Read  with 
greediness  those  authors  that  treat  of  the  doctrine  of 
prejudices,  prepossessions,  and  springs  of  error,  on  pur- 
pose to  make  your  soul  watchful  on  all  sides,  that  it  suf- 
fer itself,  as  far  as  possible,  to  be  imposed  upon,  by  none 
of  them. 

III.  A  slight  view  of  things  so  momentous  is  not  suf- 
ficient.   You  should  therefore  contrive  and  practise  some 

*  Thour:;h  the  most  of  these  following  Rules  are  chiefly  addressfd 
to  those  whom  th«ir  fortune  or  their  station  require  to  addict  them- 
selves to  the  peculiar  improvement  of  their  minds  in  greater  degrees 
of  knowledge,  yet  every  one  who  has  leisure  and  opportunity  to  be 
acquainted  with  such  writings  as  these,  may  find  something  among 
them  for  their  own  use. 


S  GENERAL  RULES 

proper  methods  to  acquaint  yourself  with  your  own  igno- 
rance, and  to  impress  your  mind  with  a  deep  and  pain- 
ful sense  of  the  low  and  imperfect  deofrees  of  your  present 
knowledge,  that  you  may  be  incited  with  labour  and 
activity  to  pursue  after  greater  measures.  Among  others, 
you  may  find  some  such  methods  as  these  successful. 

1.  Take  a  wide  survey  now  and  then  of  the  vast  and 
unlimited  regions  of  learning.  Let  your  meditations  run 
over  the  names  of  all  the  sciences,  with  their  numerous 
branchings,  and  innumerable  particular  themes  of  know- 
ledge; and  then  reflect  how  few  of  them  you  are  ac- 
quainted with  in  any  tolerable  degree.  The  most  learned 
of  mortals  will  never  find  occasion  to  act  over  again  what 
is  fabled  of  Alexander  the  Great,  that  when  he  had  con- 
quered what  was  called  the  eastern  world,  he  wept  for 
want  of  more  worlds  to  conquer.  The  worlds  of  science 
are  immense  and  endless. 

2.  Think  what  a  numberless  variety  of  questions  and 
difficulties  there  are  belonging  even  to  that  particular 
science  in  which  you  have  made  the  greatest  progress, 
and  how  few  of  thern  there  are  in  which  you  have  ar- 
rived at  a  final  and  undoubted  certainty;  excepting  only 
those  questions  in  the  pure  and  simple  mathematics, 
whose  theorems  are  demonstrable,  and  leave  scarce  any 
doubt;  and  yet,  even  in  the  pursuit  of  some  few  of  these, 
m.inkind  have  been  strangely  bewildered. 

3.  Spend  a  few  thouglits  sometimes  on  the  puzzling 
inquiries  concerning  vacuums  and  atoms,  the  doctrine 
of  infinites,  indivisibles,  and  incommensurables  in  ge- 
ometry, wherein  there  appear  some  insolvable  difficul- 
ties: do  this  on  purpose  to  give  you  a  more  sensible  im- 
pression of  the  poverty  of  your  understanding,  and  the 
imperfection  of  your  knowledge.  This  will  teach  you 
what  a  vain  thing  it  is  to  fancy  that  you  know  all  things, 
and  will  instruct  you  to  think  modestly  of  your  present 
attainments,  when  every  dust  of  the  earth,  and  every 
inch  of  empty  space,  surmounts  your  understanding,  and 
triumplis  over  your  presumption.  Arillimo  had  been 
bred  up  to  accounts  all  his  life,  and  thought  himself  a 
complete  master  of  numbers.  But  when  he  was  pushed 
liard  to  give  the  square  root  of  the  number  2,  he  tried 


TO  OBTAIN  KNOAVLEDGE.  9 

at  it,  and  laboured  long  in  millesimal  fractions,  till  he 
confessed  there  was  no  end  of  the  inquiry;  and  yet  he 
learned  so  much  modesty  by  this  perplexing  question, 
that  he  was  afraid  to  say  it  was  an  impossible  thing.  It 
is  some  good  degree  of  improvement,  when  we  are  afraid 
to  be  positive. 

4.  Read  the  accounts  of  those  vast  treasures  of  know- 
ledge which  some  of  the  dead  have  jjossessed,  and  some 
of  the  living  do  possess.  Read  and  be  astonished  at  the 
almost  incredible  advances  which  have  been  made  iii 
science.  Acquaint  yourself  witli  some  persons  of  great 
learning,  that  by  converse  among  them,  and  comparing 
yourself  with  tliem,  you  may  acquire  a  mean  opinion  of 
your  own  attainments,  and  may  thereby  be  animated 
with  new  zeal,  to  equal  them  as  far  as  possible,  or  to  ex- 
ceed: thus  let  your  diligence  be  quickened  by  a  generous 
and  laudable  emulation.  If  Vanillus  had  never  met 
with  Scitorio  and  Palydes,  he  had  never  imagined  him- 
self a  mere  novice  in  philosophy,  nor  ever  set  himself  to 
study  in  good  earnest. 

Remember  tliis,  that  if  upon  some  few  superficial 
acquirements  you  value,  exalt,  and  swell  yourself,  as 
though  you  were  a  man  of  learning  already,  you  are 
thereby  building  a  most  unpassable  barrier  against  all 
improvement;  you  will  lie  down  and  indulge  idleness, 
and  rest  yourself  contented  in  the  midst  of  deep  and 
shameful  ignorance.  Multi  ad  scientiam  pervenissent 
si  se  illuc  pervenisse  non  putassent. 

IV.  Presume  not  too  much  upon  a  bright  genius,  a 
ready  wit,  and  good  parts;  for  this,  without  labour  and 
study,  will  never  make  a  man  of  knowledge  and  wisdom. 
This  has  been  an  unhappy  temptation  to  persons  of  a 
vigorous  and  gay  fancy,  to  despise  learning  and  study. 
They  have  been  acknowledged  to  shine  in  an  assembly, 
and  sparkle  in  a  discourse  on  common  topics,  and  thence 
they  took  it  into  their  heads  to  abandon  reading  and 
labour,  and  grow  old  in  ignorance;  but  when  they  had 
lost  their  vivacity  of  animal  nature  and  youtli,  they  be- 
came stupid  and  sottish  even  to  contempt  and  ridicule. 
Lucidus  and  Scintillo  are  young  men  of  this  stamp;  they 
shine  in  conversation;  they  spread  their  native  riches 


10  GEKERAL    RULES 

before  the  ignorant;  they  pride  themselves  in  their  own 
lively  images  of  fancy,  and  imagine  themselves  wise  and 
learned;  but  they  had  best  avoid  the  presence  of  the 
skilful,  and  the  test  of  reasoning;  and  I  would  advise 
them  once  a  day  to  think  forward  a  little,  what  a  con- 
temptible figure  they  will  make  in  age. 

The  witty  men  sometimes  have  sense  enough  to  know 
their  own  foible;  and  therefore  they  craftily  shun  the 
attacks  of  argument,  or  boldly  pretend  to  despise  and 
renounce  them,  because  they  are  conscious  of  their  own 
ignorance,  and  inwardly  confess  their  want  of  acquaint- 
ance with  the  skill  of  reasoning. 

V.  As  y<»u  are  not  to  fancy  yourself  a  learned  man 
because  you  are  blessed  with  a  ready  wit;  so  neither 
must  you  imagine  that  large  and  laborious  reading,  and 
a  strong  memory,  can  denominate  you  truly  wise. 

What  that  excellent  critic  has  determined  when  he 
decided  the  question,  whether  wit  or  study  makes  the 
best  poet,  may  well  be  applied  to  every  sort  of  learning: 

Ego  nee  studimn  sine  divile  vena, 

IVec  rude  quid  prosit,  video,  ingenium:  alterius  sic 
Altera  poscit  opem  res,  et  conjurat  amice. 

^^  Hor.  de  Art.  Poet. 

Thus  made  English: 

Concerning  poets  there  has  been  contest, 

Whether  they're  made  by  art  or  nature  best; 

But  if  I  may  presume  in  this  affair. 

Among  the  rest  my  judgment  to  declare, 

No  art  without  a  genius  will  avail, 

And  parts  without  the  help  of  art  will  fail: 

But  both  ingredients  jointly  must  unite. 

Or  verse  will  never  shine  with  a  transcendent  light. 

Oldham. 

It  is  meditation  and  studious  thought,  it  is  the  exer- 
cise of  your  own  reason  and  judgment  upon  all  you  read, 
that  gives  good  sense  even  to  the  best  genius,  and  affords 
your  understanding  the  truest  improvement.  A  boy  of 
a  strong  memory  may  repeat  a  whole  book  of  Euclid, 
yet  be  no  geometrician;  for  he  may  not  be  able  perhaps 
to  demonstrate  one  single  theorem.  Memorino  has 
learned  half  the  Bible  by  heart,  and  is  become  a  living 
concordance,  and  a  speaking  index  to  theological  folios, 
and  yot  he  understands  little  of  divinity. 


TO    OBTAIN    KNOWLEDGE.  11 

A  well  furnished  library,  and  a  capacious  memory, 
are  indeed  of  singular  use  toward  the  improvement  of 
the  mind;  but  if  all  your  learning  be  nothing  else  but  a 
mere  amassment  of  what  others  have  written,  without 
a  due  penetration  into  the  meaning,  and  without  a  judi- 
cious choice  and  determination  of  your  own  sentiments, 
I  do  not  see  what  title  your  head  has  to  true  learning 
above  your  shelves.  Though  you  have  read  philosophy 
and  tlieoiogy,  morals  and  metaphysics  in  abundance, 
and  every  other  art  and  science,  yet  if  your  memory  is 
the  only  faculty  employed,  with  the  neglect  of  your  rea- 
soning powers,  you  can  justly  claim  no  higher  character 
but  that  of  a  good  historian  of  the  sciences. 

Here  note,  many  of  the  foregoing  advices  are  more 
peculiarly  proper  for  those  who  are  conceited  of  their 
abilities,  and  are  ready  to  entertain  a  high  opinion  of 
themselves.  But  a  modest,  humble  youth,  of  a  good 
genius,  should  not  suffer  himself  to  be  discouraged  by 
any  of  these  considerations.  They  are  designed  only  as 
a  spur  to  diligence,  and  a  guard  against  vanity  and  pride. 

VI.  Be  not  so  weak  as  to  imagine,  that  a  life  of  learn- 
ing is  a  life  of  laziness  and  ease;  dare  not  give  up  your- 
self to  any  of  the  learned  professions,  unless  you  are 
resolved  to  labour  hard  at  study,  and  can  make  it  your 
delight,  and  the  joy  of  your  life,  according  to  the  motto 
of  our  la-e  Lord  Chancellor  King: 

....  Labor  ipse  voluptas.  ' 

It  is  no  idle  thing  to  be  a  scholar  indeed.  A  man 
much  addicted  to  luxury  and  pleasure,  recreation  and 
pnstime,  should  never  pretend  to  devote  himself  entirely 
to  the  sciences,  unless  his  soul  be  so  reformed  and  refined, 
that  he  can  taste  all  these  entertainments  eminently  in 
his  closet,  among  his  books  and  papers.  Sobrino  is  a 
temperate  man,  and  a  pliilosopher,  and  he  feeds  upon 
partridge  and  piieasant,  venison  and  ragouts,  and  every 
delicacy,  in  a  growing  understandmg,  and  a  serene  and 
healthy  soul,  though  he  dines  on  a  dish  of  spiouts  or 
turnips.  Languinos  loved  his  ease,  and  therefore  chose 
to  be  brought  up  a  scholar;  he  had  much  indolence  in 
his  temper;  and  as  he  never  cared  for  study,  he  falls 


12  GENERAL    RULES 

under  universal  contempt  in  his  profession,  because  he 
has  nothing  but  the  gown  and  the  name. 

VII.  Let  the  hope  of  new  discoveries,  as  well  as  the 
satisfaction  and  pleasure  of  known  truths,  animate  your 
daily  industry.  Do  not  think  learning  in  general  is  ar- 
rived at  its  perfection,  or  that  the  knowledge  of  any  par- 
ticular subject  in  any  science  cannot  be  improved,  mere- 
ly because  it  has  lain  five  hundred  or  a  thousand  years 
without  improvement.  The  present  age,  by  the  bless- 
ing of  God  on  the  ingenuity  and  diligence  of  men,  has 
brouglit  to  light  such  truths  in  natural  piiilosophy,  and 
such  discoveries  in  the  heavens  and  the  eartli,  as  seemed 
to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  man.  But  may  there  not  be 
Sir  Isaac  Newtons  in  every  science?  You  should  never 
despair  therefore  of  finding  out  that  which  has  never  yet 
been  found,  unless  you  see  something  in  the  nature  of  it 
which  renders  it  unsearchable,  and  above  the  reach  of 
our  faculties. 

Nor  should  a  student  in  divinity  imagine  that  our  age 
is  arrived  at  a  full  understanding  of  every  thing  which 
can  be  known  by  tlie  Scriptures.  Every  age  since  the 
Reformation  hath  thrown  some  further  liglit  on  difficult 
texts  and  paragraphs  of  the  Bible,  which  have  been  long 
obscured  by  the  early  rise  of  antichrist:  and  since  there 
are  at  present  many  difficulties  and  darknesses  lianging 
about  certain  trutlis  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  since 
several  of  tliese  relate  to  important  doctrines,  such  as 
the  origin  of  sin,  the  fall  of  Adam,  tlie  person  of  Christ, 
the  blessed  Trinity,  and  decrees  of  God,  &c.  wliicli  do 
still  embarrass  the  minds  of  honest  and  inquiring  rea- 
ders, and  which  make  work  for  noisy  controversy;  it  is 
certain  there  are  several  things  in  the  Bible  yet  un- 
known, and  not  sufficiently  explained;  and  it  is  certain 
that  there  is  some  way  to  solve  these  difficulties,  and  to 
reconcile  these  seeming  contradictions.  And  wliy  may 
not  a  sincere  searcher  of  truth  in  the  present  age,  by  la- 
bour, diligence,  study,  and  prayer,  with  the  best  use  of 
his  reasoning  powers,  find  out  the  proper  solution  of 
those  knots  and  perplexities  which  have  hitherto  been 
unsolved,  and  which  have  afforded  matter  for  angry 
quarrelling.'     Happy  is  every  man  who  shall  be  favoured 


TO   OBTAIX  KNOWLEDGE.  13 

of  Heaven,  to  give  a  helping  hand  towards  the  intro- 
duction of  the  blessed  age  of  light  and  love. 

VIII.  Do  not  liO\tr  always  ou  the  surface  of  things, 
nor  take  up  suddenly  with  mere  appearances;  but  pene- 
trate into  the  depth  of  matters,  as  far  as  your  time  and 
circumstances  allow,  especially  in  those  things  which  re- 
late to  your  own  profession.  Do  not  indulge  yourselves  to 
judge  of  things  by  the  first  glimpse,  or  a  short  and  su- 
perficial view  of  them;  for  this  will  fill  the  mind  with 
errors  and  prejudices,  and  give  it  a  wrong  turn  and  ill 
habit  of  thinking,  and  make  much  work  for  retraction. 
Subito  is  carried  away  witli  title  pages,  so  that  he  ven- 
tures to  pronounce  upon  a  large  octavo  at  once,  and  to 
recommend  it  wonderfully  when  he  has  read  half  the 
preface.  Another  volume  of  controversies,  of  equal  size, 
was  discarded  by  liim  at  once,  because  it  pretended  to 
treat  of  the  Trinity,  and  yet  he  could  neither  find  the 
word  essence  nor  subsistencies  in  tlie  twelve  first  pages; 
but  Subito  changes  his  opinions  of  men  and  books  and 
things  so  often,  that  nobody  regards  him. 

As  for  those  sciences,  or  those  parts  of  knowledge, 
which  either  your  profession,  your  leisure,  your  inclina- 
tion, or  your  incapacity,  forbid  you  to  pursue-  with  much 
application,  or  to  search  far  into  them,  you  must  be  con- 
tented with  an  historical  and  superficial  knowledge  of 
them,  and  not  pretend  to  form  any  judgment  of  your 
own  on  those  subjects  which  you  understand  very  im- 
perfectly. 

IX.  Once  a  day,  especially  in  the  early  years  of  life 
and  study,  call  yourselves  to  an  account  what  new  ideas, 
what  new  proposition  or  truth  you  have  gained,  what 
further  confiruiation  of  known  truths,  and  what  ad- 
vances you  have  made  in  any  part  of  knowledge;  and 
let  no  day,  if  possible,  pass  away  without  some  intellec- 
tual gain:  such  a  course,  well  pursued,  n)ust  certainly 
advance  us  in  useful  knowledge.  It  is  a  wise  proverb 
among  the  learned,  borrowed  from  the  lips  and  practice 
of  a  celebrated  painter.  Nulla  dies  sine  linea,  "  Let  no 
day  pass  without  one  line  at  least;"  and  it  was  a  sacred 
rule  among  the  Pythagoreans,  That  they  should  every 
evening  thrice  run  over  tiie  actions  and  alTairs  of  the 

2 


14 


GENERAL  RULES 


day,  and  examine  what  tlieir  conduct  had  been,  what 
they  had  done,  or  what  they  had  neglected:  and  they 
assured  their  pupils,  that  by  this  method  they  would 
make  a  noble  progress  in  the  path  of  virtue. 

MyiS  y-vov  i/.^\v.-AOt<Ttv  tTt'  Ofi,uu,crt  7r(0ir&stt'<r0xi 
II>)  Traes^yn'i  T»  S'  i^i^x;  '»  jUO»  Stov  oox'  sTsXe(rS)i; 

Nor  let  soft  slumber  close  your  eyes, 
Before  you've  recollected  fhrite 
The  train  of  action  through  the  day: 
Where  have  my  feet  chose  out  their  way? 
Whtt  have  I  learn'd,  where'er  I've  been, 
From  all  I've  heard,  from  all  I've  seen? 
What  know  I  more  that's  worth  the  knowing? 
What  have  I  done  that's  worth  the  doing? 
What  have  I  souj^ht  that  I  sljould  shun? 
What  duty  have  I  left  undone? 
Or  into  what  new  follies  run? 
These  self-inquiries  are  the  road 
That  leads  to  virtue,  and  to  God. 

I  would  be  glad,  among  a  nation  of  Christians,  to 
find  young  men  heartily  engaged  in  the  practice  of  what 
this  heatlien  writer  teaches. 

X.  Maintain  a  constant  watch  at  all  times  against  a 
dogmatical  spirit:  fix  not  your  assent  to  any  proposition 
in  a  firm  and  unalterable  manner,  till  you  have  some 
firm  and  unalterable  ground  for  it,  and  till  you  have  ar- 
rived at  some  clear  and  sure  evidence;  till  you  have 
turned  the  proposition  on  all  sides,  and  searched  the 
matter  through  and  through,  so  that  you  cannot  be  mis- 
taken. And  even  where  you  may  think  you  liave  full 
grounds  of  assurance,  be  not  too  early,  nor  too  frequent, 
in  expressing  this  assurance  in  too  peremptory  and  posi- 
tive a  manner,  remembering  tiiat  human  nature  is  al- 
ways liable  to  mistake  in  this  corrupt  and  feeble  state. 
A  dogmatical  spirit  has  many  inconveniences  attending 
it:  as 

1.  It  stops  the  ear  against  all  further  reasoning  upon 
that  subject,  and  shuts  up  the  mind  from  all  further  im- 
provements of  knowledge.  If  you  have  resolutely  fixed 
your  opinion,  though  it  be  upon  too  slight  and  insutfi- 
cient  grounds,  yet  you  will  stand  determined  to  renounce 
the  strongest  reason  brought  for  the  contrary  opinion, 


TO  OBTAIN  KNOWLEDGE.  15 

and  grow  obstinate  against  the  force  of  the  clearest  ar- 
gument. Positive  is  a  man  of  this  cliaracter;  and  has 
often  pronounced  his  assurance  of  tiie  Cartesian  vor- 
texes: last  year  some  furtlier  light  broke  in  upon  his  un- 
derstanding, with  uncontrollable  force,  by  reading  some- 
thing of  mathematical  philosophy;  yet  having  asserted 
his  former  opinions  in  a  most  confident  manner,  he  is 
tempted  now  to  wink  a  little  against  the  truth,  or  to 
prevaricate  in  his  discourse  upon  that  subject,  lest  by 
admitting  conviction,  he  should  expose  himself  to  the 
necessity  of  confessing  his  former  folly  and  mistake: 
and  he  has  not  humility  enough  for  that. 

2.  A  dogmatical  spirit  naturally  leads  us  to  arrogance 
of  mind,  and  gives  a  man  some  airs  in  conversation 
which  are  too  hauj^lity  and  assuming.  Audens  is  a  man 
of  learning,  and  very  good  company;  but  his  infallible 
assurance  renders  his  carriage  sometimes  insupportable. 

A  dogmatical  spirit  inclines  a  man  to  be  censorious  of 
his  neighbours.  Every  one  of  his  own  opinions  appears 
to  him  written  as  it  were  with  sunbeams;  and  he  grows 
angry  that  his  neighbour  does  not  see  it  in  the  same 
light.  He  is  tempted  to  disdain  his  correspondents,  as 
men  of  a  low  and  dark  understanding,  because  they  will 
not  believe  what  he  does.  Furio  goes  furtlier  in  this 
wild  track;  and  charges  those  who  refuse  his  notions 
with  wilful  obstinacy  and  vile  hypocrisy;  he  tells  them 
boldly,  that  they  resist  the  truth,  and  sin  against  their 
consciences. 

These  are  the  men  that,  when  they  deal  in  contro- 
versy, delight  in  reproaches.  They  abound  in  tossing 
about  absurdity  and  stupidity  among  their  brethren; 
they  cast  the  imputation  of  heresy  and  nonsense  plenti- 
fully upon  their  antagonists:  and  in  matters  of  sacred 
importance,  they  deal  out  their  anathemas  in  abun- 
dance upon  Christians  better  than  themselves;  they  de- 
nounce damnation  upon  their  neighbours,  without  cither 
justice  or  mercy;  and  when  thev  pronounce  sentences 
of  divine  wrath  against  supposed  heretics,  they  add 
their  own  human  fire  and  indignation.  A  dogmatist  in 
religion  is  not  a  great  way  off  from  a  bigot,  and  is  in 
high  danger  of  growing  up  to  be  a  bloody  persecutor. 


ib  GENERAL  RULES 

XI.  Though  caution  and  slow  assent  will  guard  yo\i 
against  frequent  mistakes  and  retractions;  yet  you  should 
get  luamility  and  courage  enough  to  retract  any  mistake, 
and  confess  an  error:  frequent  changes  are  tokens  of  le- 
vity in  our  first  determinations;  yet  you  should  never  be 
too  proud  to  change  your  opinion,  nor  frigiitened  at  the 
name  of  changeling.  Learn  to  scorn  thuse  vulgar  bug- 
bears, which  confirm  foolish  man  in  his  old  mistakes,  for 
fear  of  being  charged  with  inconstancy.  I  confess  it  is 
better  not  to  judge,  than  to  judge  falsely;  it  is  wiser  to 
withhold  our  assent  till  we  see  complete  evidence;  but 
if  we  have  too  suddenly  given  up  our  assent,  as  the  wisest 
man  does  sometimes,  if  we  have  professed  what  we  find 
afterwards  to  be  false,  we  should  never  be  ashamed  nor 
afraid  to  renounce  a  mistake.  That  is  a  noble  essay 
which  is  found  among  the  occasional  papers  "  to  encour- 
age the  world  to  practise  retractations;"  and  I  would  re- 
commend it  to  the  perusal  of  every  scholar  and  every 
Cinistian. 

XII.  He  that  would  raise  his  judgment  above  the  vul- 
gar rank  of  mankind,  and  learn  to  pass  a  just  sentence 
on  persons  and  tilings,  must  take  heed  of  a  fanciful  tem- 
per of  mind,  and  a  humorous  conduct  in  his  atfairs. 
Fancy  and  humour,  early  and  constantly  indulged,  may 
expect  an  old  age  overrun  with  follies. 

The  notion  of  a  humourist  is  one  that  is  greatly  pleased, 
or  greatly  displeased  with  little  things;  who  sets  his  heart 
much  upon  matters  of  very  small  importance;  who  has 
his  will  determined  every  day  by  trifles,  his  actions  sel- 
dom directed  by  the  reason  and  nature  of  things,  and  his 
passions  frequently  raised  by  things  of  little  moment. 
Where  this  practice  is  allowed,  it  will  insensibly  warp 
the  judgment  to  pronounce  little  things  great,  and  tempt 
you  to  lay  a  great  weight  upon  tiiem.  In  short,  this 
temper  will  incline  you  to  pass  an  unjust  value  on  almost 
every  thing  that  occurs;  and  every  step  you  take  in  tliis 
patli  is  just  so  far  out  of  the  way  to  wisdom. 

XIII.  For  the  same  reason  have  a  care  of  trifling  with 
things  important  and  momentous,  or  of  sporting  with 
things  awful  and  sacred:  do  not  indulge  a  spirit  of  ridi- 
cule, as  some  witty  men  do  on  all  occasions  and  subjects- 


TO    OBTAIN    KNOWLEDGE.  17 

This  will  as  unhappily  bias  the  judgment  on  the  other 
side,  and  incline  yon  to  pass  a  low  esteem  on  the  most 
valuable  objects.  Whatsoever  evil  habit  we  indulge  in 
practice,  it  will  insensibly  obtain  a  power  over  oiir  un- 
derstanding, and  betray  us  into  many  errors.  Jocander 
is  ready  with  his  jests  to  answer  every  thing  that  he  hears; 
he  reads  books  in  the  same  jovial  humour,  and  has  gotten 
the  art  of  turning  every  thought  and  sentence  into  mer- 
riment. How  many  awkward  and  irregular  judgments 
does  this  man  pass  upon  solemn  subjects  even  when  he 
designs  to  be  grave  and  in  earnest!  His  mirth  and  laugh- 
ing humour  is  formed  into  habit  and  temper,  and  leads 
his  understanding  shamefully  astray.  You  will  see  him 
wandering  in  pursuit  of  a  gay  flying  feather,  and  he  is 
drawn  by  a  sort  of  ignis  fatuus  into  bogs  and  mire  almost 
every  day  of  his  life. 

XIV.  Ever  maintain  a  virtuous  and  pious  frame  of 
spirit;  for  an  indulgence  of  vicious  inclinations  debases 
the  understanding  and  perverts  the  judgment.  Whore- 
dom and  wine,  and  new  wine,  take  away  tlie  heart  and 
soul,  and  reason  of  a  man.  Sensuality  ruins  the  better 
faculties  of  the  mind:  an  indulgence  to  appetite  and  pas- 
sion enfeebles  the  powers  of  reason;  it  makes  the  judg- 
ment weak  and  susceptible  of  every  falsehood,  and  espe- 
cially of  such  mistakes  as  have  a  tendency  towards  the 
gratification  of  the  animal:  and  it  warps  the  soul  aside 
strangely  from  that  steadfast  honesty  and  integrity  that 
necessarily  belongs  to  the  pursuit  of  truth.  It  is  the  vir- 
tuous man  who  is  in  a  fair  way  to  wisdom.  "  God  gives 
to  those  that  are  good  in  his  sight  wisdom,  and  know- 
ledge, and  joy,"  Eccles.  ii.  26. 

Piety  towards  God,  as  well  as  sobriety  and  virtue,  are 
necessary  qualifications  to  make  a  truly  wise  and  judi- 
cious man.  He  that  abandons  religion  must  act  in  such 
a  contradiction  to  his  own  conscience  and  best  judgment 
that  he  abuses  and  spoils  the  faculty  itself  It  is  thus  in 
the  nature  of  things,  and  it  is  thus  by  the  righteous  judg- 
ment of  God:  even  the  pretended  sages  among  the  hea 
thens,  who  did  not  like  to  retain  God  in  their  knowledge 
they  were  given  up  to  a  reprobate  mind,  £<?  vou.  a'\'x.,aov 
an  undistinguishing  or  injudicious  mv'^.  '«•  .at  thej 
2* 


18  GENERAL    RULES 

judged  inconsistently,  and  practised  mere  absurdities, 

-.'.  ^.^    x.^xorr:.,    RoiXl.    l.    28. 

And  it  is  the  character  of  the  slaves  of  antichrist,  2 
Thess.  ii.  10,  &c.  that  those  "who  receive  not  the  love 
of  the  truth  were  exposed  to  the  power  of  diabolical 
sleights  and  lying  wonders."  When  divine  revelation 
shines  and  blazes  in  the  face  of  men  with  glorious  evi- 
dence, and  they  wink  their  eyes  against  it,  the  god  of 
this  world  is  suffered  to  blind  them,  even  in  the  most  ob- 
vious, common,  and  sensible  things.  The  great  God  of 
Heaven,  for  this  cause,  sends  them  strong  delusions,  that 
they  should  believe  a  lie;  and  tlie  nonsense  of  transub- 
stantiation,  in  the  popish  world,  is  a  most  glaring  accom- 
plishment of  this  propliecy,  beyond  even  what  could  have 
been  thought  of  or  expected  among  creatures  who  pre- 
tend to  reason. 

XV.  VV^atcii  against  the  pride  of  your  own  reason,  and 
a  vain  conceit  of  your  own  intellectual  powers,  with  the 
neglect  of  divine  aid  and  blessing.  Presume  not  upon 
great  attainments  in  knowledge  by  your  own  self-sutS- 
ciency:  those  who  trust  to  their  own  understandings  en- 
tirely are  pronounced  fools  in  the  word  of  God;  and  it  ia 
the  wisest  of  men  gives  them  this  character.  "  He  that 
trusteth  in  his  own  heart  is  a  fool,"  Prov.  xxviii.  26. 
And  the  same  divine  writer  advises  us  to  "  trust  in  the 
Lord  with  all  our  heart,  and  not  to  lean  to  our  under- 
standings, nor  to  be  wise  in  our  own  eyes,"  chap.  iii.  5.  1. 

Those  who,  with  a  neglect  of  religion  and  dependence 
on  God,  apply  themselves  to  search  out  every  article  in 
the  things  of  God  by  the  mere  dint  of  their  own  reason, 
have  been  suffered  to  run  into  wild  excesses  of  foolery, 
and  strange  extravagance  of  opinions.  Every  one  who 
pursues  this  vain  course,  and  will  not  ask  for  the  conduct 
of  God  in  the  study  of  religion,  has  just  reason  to  fear  he 
shall  be  left  of  God,  and  given  up  a  prey  to  a  thousand 
prejudices;  that  he  shall  be  consigned  over  to  the  follies 
of  his  own  heart,  and  pursue  his  own  temporal  and  eter- 
nal ruin.  And  even  in  common  studies  we  should,  by 
humility  and  dependence,  engage  the  God  of  truth  on 
our  side. 

XVI.  Offer  up,  therefore,  your  daily  requests  to  God 


TO    OBTAIN    KNOWLEDGE.  19 

the  father  of  lights,  that  he  would  bless  all  your  attempts 
and  labours  in  reading,  study,  and  conversation.  Think 
with  yourself  how  easily  and  how  insensibly,  by  one  turn 
of  thought,  he  can  lead  you  into  a  large  scene  of  useful 
ideas:  he  can  teach  you  to  lay  hold  on  a  clue  which  ma}' 
guide  your  thoughts  with  safety  and  ease  through  all  the 
difficulties  of  an  intricate  subject.  Think  how  easily  the 
Author  of  your  beings  can  direct  your  motions,  by  his 
providence,  so  that  the  glance  of  an  eye,  or  a  word 
striking  the  ear,  or  a  sudden  turn  of  the  fancy,  shall  con- 
duct you  to  a  train  of  happy  sentiments.  By  his  secret 
and  supreme  method'of  government,  he  can  draw  you 
to  read  such  a  treatise,  or  converse  with  such  a  person, 
who  may  give  you  more  light  into  some  deep  subject  in 
an  hour,  than  you  could  obtain  by  a  month  of  your  own 
solitary  labour. 

Think  with  yourself  with  how  much  ease  the  God  of 
spirits  can  cast  into  your  minds  some  useful  suggestion, 
and  give  a  happy  turn  to  your  own  thoughts,  or  the 
thoughts  of  those  with  whom  you  converse,  whence  you 
may  derive  unspeakable  light  and  satisfaction,  in  a  mat- 
ter that  has  long  puzzled  and  entangled  you:  he  can 
show  you  a  path  whicii  the  vulture's  eye  has  not  seen, 
and  lead  you  by  some  unknown  gate  or  portal,  out  of  a 
wilderness  and  labyrinth  of  difficulties,  wherein  you  have 
been  long  wandering. 

Implore  constantly  his  divine  grace  to  point  your  in- 
clination to  proper  studies,  and  to  fix  your  heart  there. 
He  can  keep  off'  temptations  on  the  right  hand,  and  on 
the  left,  both  by  the  course  of  his  providence,  and  by  the 
secret  and  insensible  intimations  of  his  Spirit.  He  can 
guard  your  understandings  from  every  evil  influence  of 
error,  and  secure  you  from  the  danger  of  evil  books  and 
men,  which  might  otherwise  have  a  fatal  effect,  and  lead 
you  into  pernicious  mistakes. 

Nor  let  this  sort  of  advice  fill  under  the  censure  of 
the  godless  and  profane,  as  a  mere  piece  of  bigotry  or 
enthusiasm,  derived  from  faith  and  the  Bible:  for  the 
reasons  which  I  have  given  to  support  this  pious  prac- 
tice, of  invoking  the  blessing  of  God  on  our  studies,  are 
derived  from  the  light  of  nature  as  well  as  revelation. 


20  GENERAL    RULES,  &C. 

He  that  made  our  souls,  and  is  the  Father  of  spirits, 
shall  he  not  be  supposed  to  have  a  most  friendly  influ- 
ence toward  the  instruction  and  government  of  them? 
The  Author  of  our  rational  powers  can  involve  them  in 
darkness  when  he  pleases,  by  a  sudden  distemper;  or 
he  can  abandon  them  to  wander  into  dark  and  foolish 
opinions,  when  they  are  filled  with  a  vain  conceit  of 
their  own  light.  He  expects  to  be  acknowledged  in  the 
common  affairs  of  life;  and  he  does  as  certainly  expect 
it  in  the  superior  operations  of  the  mind,  and  in  the 
search  of  knowledge  and  truth.  The  very  Greek 
heathens,  by  the  light  of  reason,  were  taught  to  say, 
'ExA.o;  i«?zc/i£^B«,  and  the  Latins,  A  Jove  Principium 
Musae.  In  works  of  learning  they  thouglit  it  neces- 
sary to  begin  with  God.  Even  the  poets  call  upon  the 
muse  as  a  goddess  to  assist  them  in  their  compositions. 

The  first  lines  of  Homer  in  his  Iliad  and  his  Odyssey, 
the  first  line  of  Musaeus  in  his  song  of  Hero  and  Leander, 
the  beginning  of  Hesiod  in  his  poem  of  Works  and 
Days,  and  several  others,  furnish  us  with  sufficient  ex- 
amples of  this  kind;  nor  does  Ovid  leave  out  this  piece 
of  devotion,  as  he  begins  his  stories  of  the  Metamor- 
phoses. Christianity  so  much  the  more  obliges  us,  by 
the  precepts  of  Scripture,  to  invoke  the  assistance  of  the 
true  God  in  all  our  labours  of  the  mind,  for  the  improve- 
ment of  ourselves  and  others.  Bishop  Saunderson  says, 
that  study  without  prayer  is  atheism,  as  well  as  that 
prayer  without  study  is  presumption.  And  we  are  still 
more  abundantly  encouraged  by  the  testimony  of  those 
who  have  acknowledged,  from  their  own  experience, 
that  sincere  prayer  was  no  hinderance  to  their  studies: 
they  have  gotten  more  knowledge  sometimes  upon  their 
knees,  than  by  their  labour  in  perusing  a  variety  of  au- 
thors; and  they  have  left  this  observation  for  such  as  fol- 
low. Bene  orasse  est  bene  studuisse,  "  praying  is  the 
best  studying." 

To  conclude,  let  industry  and  devotion  join  together, 
and  you  need  not  doubt  the  happy  success.  Prov.  ii.  "Z: 
"  Incline  thine  ear  to  wisdom;  apply  thine  heart  to  un- 
derstanding: cry  after  knowledge,  and  lift  up  thy  voice: 
seek  her  as  silver,  and  search  for  her  as  for  hidden  trea- 


THE    FIVE    METHODS,  &C.  21 

Bures;  then  shalt  thou  understand  the  fear  of  the  Lord," 
&c.  wliich  "  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom."  It  is  "  the 
Lord  who  gives  wisdom  even  to  the  simple,  and  out  of 
his  mouth  cometh  knowledge  and  understanding." 


CHAPTER  II. 

OBSERVATION,  READING,  INSTRUCTION  BY  LECTURES,  CON- 
VERSATION, AND  STUDY,  COMPARED. 

There  are  five  eminent  means  or  methods  whereby 
the  mind  is  improved  in  the  knowledge  of  things;  and 
tliese  are  observation,  reading,  instruction  by  lectures, 
conversation,  and  meditation;  which  last,  in  a  most 
peculiar  manner,  is  called  study. 

Let  us  survey  the  general  definitions  or  descriptions 
of  them  all. 

I.  Observation  is  the  notice  that  we  take  of  all  occur- 
rences in  human  life,  whether  they  are  sensible  or  intel- 
lectual, whether  relating  to  persons  or  things,  to  our- 
selves or  others.  It  is  this  that  furnishes  us,  even  from 
our  infancy,  with  a  rich  variety  of  ideas  and  proposi- 
tions, words  and  phrases:  it  is  by  this  we  know  that  fire 
will  burn,  tliat  the  sun  gives  light,  that  a  horse  eats 
grass,  that  an  acorn  produces  an  oak,  that  man  is  a  be- 
ing capable  of  reasoning  and  discourse,  that  our  judg- 
ment is  weak,  that  our  mistakes  are  many,  that  our  sor- 
rows are  great,  that  our  bodies  die  and  are  carried  to  the 
grave,  and  that  one  generation  succeeds  another.  All 
those  things  which  we  see,  which  we  hear  or  feel,  which 
we  perceive  by  sense  or  consciousness,  or  which  we 
know  in  a  direct  manner,  with  scarce  any  exercise  of  our 
reflecting  faculties,  or  our  reasoning  powers,  may  be  in- 
cluded under  the  general  name  of  observation. 

When  this  observation  relates  to  any  thing  that  im- 
mediately concerns  ourselves,  and  of  which  we  are  con- 
scious, it  may  be  called  experience.  So  I  am  said  to 
know  or  experience  that  I  have  in  myself  a  power  of 
thinking,  fearing,  loving,  &c.  that  I  have  appetites  and 
passions  working  in  me,  and  many  personal  occurrences 
uave  attended  me  in  this  life. 


22  THE    FIVE    METHODS 

Observation  therefore  includes  all  that  Mr.  Locke 
means  by  sensation  and  reflection. 

When  we  are  searching  out  the  nature  or  properties 
of  any  being  by  various  methods  of  trial,  or  when  we  ap 
ply  some  active  powers,  or  set  some  causes  to  work  to 
observe  what  effects  they  would  produce,  this  sort  of  ob- 
servation is  called  experiment.  So  when  I  throw  a  bul- 
let into  water,  I  find  it  sinks;  and  when  I  throw  the 
same  bullet  into  quicksilver,  I  see  it  swims:  but  if  I  beat 
out  this  bullet  into  a  thin  hollow  shape,  like  a  dish,  then 
it  will  swim  in  the  water  too.  So  when  I  strike  tv»?o 
flints  together,  I  find  they  produce  fire;  when  I  throw  a 
seed  in  the  earth,  it  grows  up  into  a  plant. 

All  these  belong  to  the  first  method  of  knowledge; 
which  I  shall  call  observation. 

II.  Reading  is  that  means  or  method  of  knowledge 
whereby  we  acquaint  ourselves  with  what  other  men 
have  written,  or  published  to  the  world  in  their  writinus. 
These  arts  of  reading  and  writing  are  of  infinite  advan- 
tage; for  by  them  we  are  made  partakers  of  the  senti- 
ments, observations,  reasonings,  and  improvements  of  all 
the  learned  world,  in  the  most  remote  nations,  and  in 
former  ages  almost  from  the  beginning  of  mankind. 

III.  Public  or  private  lectures  are  such  verbal  instruc- 
tions as  are  given  by  a  teacher  wliile  the  learners  attend 
in  silence.  This  is  the  way  of  learning  religion  from 
the  pulpit;  or  of  pliilosophy  or  theology  from  the  pro- 
fessor's chair;  or  of  mathematics,  by  a  teacher  showing 
us  various  theorems  or  problems,  i.  e.  speculations  or 
practices,  by  demonstration  and  operation,  with  all  the 
instruments  of  art  necessary  to  those  operations. 

IV.  Conversation  is  another  method  of  improving  our 
minds,  wherein,  by  mutual  discourse  and  inquiry-,  we 
learn  the  sentiments  of  others,  as  well  as  communicate 
our  sentiments  to  others  in  the  same  manner.  Some- 
times, indeed,  though  both  parties  speak  by  turns,  yet 
the  advantage  is  only  on  one  side,  as  when  a  teacher 
and  a  learner  meet  and  discourse  together:  but  frequently 
the  profit  is  mutual.  Under  this  head  of  conversation 
we  may  also  rank  disputes  of  various  kinds. 

V.  Meditation  or  study  includes  all  those  exercises  of 


f 

OF  IMPROVEMENT  COMPARED.  23 

the  mind,  whereby  we  render  all  the  former  methods 
useful  for  our  increase  in  true  knowledge  and  wisdom. 
It  is  by  meditation  we  come  to  confirm  our  memory  of 
things  that  pass  through  our  thoughts  in  the  occurrences 
of  life,  in  our  own  experiences,  and  in  the  observations 
we  make.  It  is  by  meditation  that  we  draw  various  in- 
ferences, and  establish  in  our  minds  general  principles 
of  knowledge.  It  is  by  meditation  that  we  compare  the 
various  ideas  which  we  derive  from  our  senses,  or  from 
the  operations  of  our  souls,  and  join  them  in  proposi- 
tions. It  is  by  meditation  that  we  fix  in  our  memory 
whatsoever  we  learn,  and  form  our  judgment  of  the 
truth  or  falsehood,  the  strength  or  weakness,  of  what 
others  speak  or  write.  It  is  meditation  or  study  that 
draws  out  long  chains  of  argument,  and  searches  and 
finds  deep  and  difficult  truths  which  before  lay  concealed 
in  darkness. 

It  would  be  a  needless  thing  to  prove,  tliat  our  own 
solitary  meditations,  together  with  the  few  observations 
that  the  most  part  of  mankind  are  capable  of  making, 
are  not  sufficient,  of  themselves,  to  lead  us  into  the  at- 
tainment of  any  considerable  proportion  of  knowledge,  at 
least  in  an  age  so  much  improved  as  ours  is,  without  the 
assistance  of  conversation  and  reading,  and  other  proper 
instructions  that  are  to  be  attained  in  our  days.  Yet 
each  of  these  five  methods  have  their  peculiar  advan- 
tages, whereby  they  assist  each  other;  and  their  pecu- 
liar defects,  which  have  need  to  be  supplied  by  the  other's 
assistance.  Let  us  trace  over  some  of  the  particular  ad- 
vantages of  each. 

I.  One  method  of  improving  the  mind  is  observation; 
and  the  advantages  of  it  are  these. — 

1.  It  is  owing  to  observation,  that  our  mind  is  fur- 
nished with  the  first  simple  and  complex  ideas.  It  is 
this  lays  the  ground-work  and  foundation  of  all  know- 
ledge, and  makes  us  capable  of  using  any  of  the  other 
methods  for  improving  the  mind:  for  if  we  did  not  at- 
tain a  variety  of  sensible  and  intellectual  ideas  by  the 
sensations  of  outward  objects,  by  the  consciousness  of 
our  own  appetites  and  passions,  pleasures  and  pains,  and 
by  inward  experience  of  the  actings  of  our  own  spirits, 


24  THE    FIVE    METHODS 

it  would  be  impossible  either  for  men  or  books  to  teach 
us  any  thing^.  It  is  observation  that  must  give  us  our 
first  ideas  of  things,  as  it  includes  in  it  sense  and  con- 
sciousness. 

2.  All  our  knowledge  derived  from  observation,  whe- 
ther it  be  of  single  ideas  or  of  propositions,  is  knowledge 
gotten  at  first  hand.  Hereby  we  see  and  know  things 
as  they  are,  or  as  they  appear  to  us;  we  take  the  im- 
pressions of  them  on  our  minds  from  the  original  objects 
themselves,  which  give  a  clearer  and  stronger  conception 
of  things:  these  ideas  are  more  lively,  and  the  proposi- 
tions (at  least  in  many  cases)  are  much  more  evident. 
Whereas,  what  knowledge  we  derive  from  lectures, 
reading,  and  conversation,  is  but  the  copy  of  other  men's 
ideas,  that  is,  the  picture  of  a  picture;  and  it  is  one  re- 
move further  from  the  original. 

3.  Another  advantage  of  observation  is,  that  we  may 
gain  knowledge  all  the  day  long,  and  every  moment  of 
our  lives;  and  every  moment  of  our  existence  we  may 
be  adding  something  to  our  intellectual  treasures  there- 
by, except  only  while  we  are  asleep,  and  even  then  the 
remembrance  of  our  dreaming  will  teach  us  some  truths, 
and  lay  a  foundation  for  a  better  acquaintance  with  hu- 
man nature,  both  in  the  powers  and  in  the  frailties  of  it. 

II.  The  next  way  of  improving  the  mind  is  by  read- 
ing, and  the  advantages  of  it  are  such  as  these: 

1.  By  reading  we  acquaint  ourselves,  in  a  very  exten- 
sive manner,  with  the  affairs,  actions,  and  thoughts,  of 
the  living  and  tlie  dead,  in  the  most  remote  nations,  and 
most  distant  ages,  and  that  with  as  much  ease  as  though 
they  lived  in  our  own  age  and  nation.  By  reading  of 
books  we  may  learn  something  from  all  parts  of  man- 
kind; whereas,  by  observation  we  learn  all  from  our- 
selves, and  only  what  comes  within  our  own  direct  cog- 
nizance; by  conversation  we  can  only  enjoy  the  assist- 
ance of  a  very  few  persons,  viz.  those  who  are  near  us, 
and  live  at  the  same  time  when  we  do,  that  is,  our  neigh- 
bours and  contemporaries;  but  our  knowledo-e  is  much 
more  narrowed  still,  if  we  confine  ourselves  merely  to 
our  own  solitary  reasonings,  without  much  observation 


OP  IMPROVEMENT  COMPARED.  2b 

or  reading:  for  then  all  our  improvement  must  arise  only 
from  our  own  inward  powers  and  meditations. 

2.  By  reading  we  learn  not  only  the  actions  and  the 
sentiments  of  diiferent  nations  and  ages,  but  we  transfer 
to  ourselves  the  knowledge  and  improvements  of  the 
most  learned  men,  the  wisest  and  the  best  of  mankind, 
when  or  wheresoever  they  lived:  for  though  many  books 
have  been  written  by  weak  and  injudicious  persons,  yet 
the  most  of  those  books  which  have  obtained  great  re- 
putation in  the  world,  are  the  products  of  great  and 
wise  men  in  their  several  ages  and  nations:  whereas  we 
can  obtain  the  conversation  and  instruction  of  those  only 
who  are  within  the  reach  of  our  dwelhng,  or  our  ac- 
quaintance, whether  they  are  wise  or  unwise:  and  some- 
times that  narrow  sphere  scarce  affords  any  person  of 
great  eminence  in  wisdom  or  learning,  unless  our  in- 
structer  happen  to  have  this  character.  And  as  for  our 
study  and  meditations,  even  when  we  arrive  at  some 
good  degrees  of  learning,  our  advantage  for  further  im- 
provement in  knowledge  by  them,  is  still  far  more  con- 
tracted than  what  we  may  derive  from  reading. 

3.  When  we  read  good  authors,  we  learn  the  best,  the 
most  laboured,  and  most  refined  sentiments,  even  of 
those  wise  and  learned  men;  for  they  have  studied  hard, 
and  have  committed  to  writing  their  maturest  thoughts, 
and  the  result  of  their  long  study  and  experience:  where- 
as, by  conversation,  and  in  some  lectures,  we  obtain 
many  times  only  the  present  thoughts  of  our  tutors  or 
friends,  wliich,  (though  they  may  be  bright  and  useful) 
yet,  at  first  perhaps,  may  be  sudden  and  indigested,  and 
are  mere  hints  wliich  have  risen  to  no  maturity. 

4.  It  is  another  advantage  of  reading,  that  we  may 
review  what  w«,  have  read;  we  may  consult  the  page 
again  and  again,  and  meditate  on  it  at  successive  sea- 
sons, in  our  serenest  and  retired  hours,  having  the  book 
always  at  hand:  but  what  we  obtain  by  conversation  and 
in  lectures,  is  oftentimes  lost  again  as  soon  as  tiie  com- 
pany breaks  up,  or  at  least  when  the  day  vanishes,  un- 
less we  happen  to  have  the  talent  of  a  good  memory,  or 
quickly  retire  and  note  down  wliat  remarkables  we  have 
found  in  those  discourses.  And  for  the  same  reason,  and 

3 


26  THE    FIVE    METHODS. 

for  the  want  of  retiring  and  writing,  many  a  learned 
man  has  lost  several  useful  meditations  of  his  own,  and 
could  never  recall  them  again. 

III.  The  advantage  of  verbal  instructions  by  public 
or  private  lectures  are  these: 

1.  There  is  something  more  sprightly,  more  delight- 
ful and  entertaining,  in  the  living  discourse  of  a  wise, 
learned,  and  well  qualified  teacher,  than  there  is  in  the 
silent  and  sedentary  practice  of  reading.  The  very 
turn  of  voice,  the  good  pronunciation,  and  the  polite  and 
alluring  manner  which  some  teachers  have  attained, 
will  engage  the  attention,  keep  the  soul  fixed,  and  con- 
vey and  insinuate  into  the  mind,  the  ideas  of  things  in  a 
more  lively  and  forcible  way,  than  the  mere  reading  of 
books  in  tlie  silence  and  retirement  of  the  closet. 

2.  A  tutor  or  instructer,  when  he  paraphrases  and  ex- 
plains otlier  authors,  can  mark  out  the  precise  point  of 
difficulty  or  controversy,  and  unfold  it.  He  can  show 
you  which  paragraphs  are  of  greatest  importance,  and 
which  are  of  less  moment.  He  can  teach  his  hearers 
what  authors,  or  what  parts  of  an  author  a-re  best  worth 
reading  on  any  particular  subject,  and  thus  save  his  dis- 
ciples much  time  and  pains,  by  shortening  tlie  labours 
of  their  closet  and  private  studies.  He  can  show  you 
what  were  the  doctrines  oi  the  ancients,  in  a  compendium 
which  perhaps  would  cost  much  labour  and  the  perusal 
of  many  books  to  attain.  He  can  inform  you  what  new 
doctrines  or  sentiments  are  arising  in  the  world  before  they 
come  to  be  public;  as  well  as  acquaint  you  with  his  own 
private  thoughts,  and  his  own  experiments  and  observa- 
tions, which  never  were,  and  perhaps  never  will  be  publish- 
ed to  the  world,  and  yet  may  be  very  valuable  and  useful. 

3.  A  living  instructer  can  convey  to  our  senses  those 
notions  with  which  he  would  furnish  our  minds,  when 
he  teaches  us  natural  philosophy,  or  most  parts  of  mathe- 
matical learning.  He  can  make  the  experiments  before 
our  eyes.  He  can  describe  figures  and  diagrams,  point 
to  the  lines  and  angles,  and  make  out  the  demonstration 
in  a  more  intelligible  manner  by  sensible  means,  which 
cannot  so  well  be  done  by  mere  reading,  even  though  we 
should  have  the  same  figures  lying  in  a  book  before  our 


OF  IMPROVEMENT  COMPARED.  Zi 

eyes.     A  living  teacher,  therefore,  is  a  most  necessary 
help  in  these  studies. 

I  might  add  also,  that  even  where  the  subject  of  dis- 
course is  moral,  logical,  or  rhetorical,  &c.  and  which  does 
not  directly  come  under  the  notice  of  our  senses,  a  tutor 
may  explain  his  ideas  by  such  familiar  examptes,  and 
plain  or  simple  similitudes,  as  seldom  find  place  in  books 
and  writings. 

4.  When  an  instructor  in  his  lectures  delivers  any 
matter  of  difficulty,  or  expresses  himself  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  seems  obscure,  so  that  you  do  not  take  up  his 
ideas,  clearly  or  fully,  you  have  opportunity,  at  least 
when  the  lecture  is  finished,  or  at  other  proper  seasons, 
to  inquire  how  such  a  sentence  should  be  understood, 
or  how  such  a  difficulty  may  be  explained  and  removed. 

If  tl)ere  be  permission  given  to  free  converse  with  the 
tutor,  either  in  the  midst  of  the  lecture,  or  rather  at  the 
end  of  it,  concerning  any  doubts  or  difficulties  that  occur 
to  the  liearer,  this  brings  it  very  near  to  conversation 
or  discourse. 

IV.  Conversation  is  the  next  method  of  improvement, ' 
and  it  is  attended  with  the  following  advantages: 

1.  Wlien  we  converse  familiarly  with  a  learned  friend, 
we  have  his  own  help  at  hand  to  explain  to  us  every 
word  and  sentiment  that  seems  obscure  in  his  discourse, 
and  to  inform  us  of  his  whole  meaning:  so  that  we  are 
in  much  less  danger  of  mistaking  his  sense:  whereas  in 
books,  wliatsoever  is  really  obscure  may  also  abide  al- 
ways obscure  witliout  remedy,  since  the  autlior  is  not 
at  hand,  that  we  may  inquire  his  sense. 

If  we  mistake  the  meaning  of  our  friend  in  conversa- 
tion, we  are  quickly  set  right  again;  but  in  reading,  we 
many  times  go  on  in  tl^e  same  mistake,  and  are  not 
capable  of  recovering  ourselves  from  it.  Thence  it  comes 
to  pass  that  we  have  so  many  contests  in  all  ages  about 
the  meaning  of  ancient  autiiors,  and  especially  the  sacred 
writers.  Happy  should  we  be  could  we  but  converse 
with  Moses,  Isaiah,  and  St.  Paul,  and  consult  the  pro- 
phets and  apostles,  when  we  meet  with  a  difficult  text: 
but  that  glorious  conversation  is  reserved  for  the  ages  of 
future  blessedness. 


28  THE  FIVE  METHODS 

2.  When  we  are  discoursing  upon  any  theme  with  a 
friend,  we  may  propose  our  doubts  and  objections  against 
his  sentiments,  and  have  them  solved  and  answered  at 
once. — The  difficulties  that  arise  in  our  minds  may  be 
removed  by  one  enliglitening  word  of  our  correspondent: 
whereas  in  reading,  if  a  difficulty  or  question  arise  in  our 
thoughts,  which  the  author  has  not  happened  to  mention, 
we  must  be  content  without  a  present  answer  or  solution 
of  it.     Books  cannot  speak. 

3.  Not  only  the  doubts  which  arise  in  the  mind  upon 
any  subject  or  discourse  are  easily  proposed  and  solved 
in  conversation,  but  the  very  difficulties  we  meet  with 
in  books,  and  in  our  private  studies,  may  find  a  relief  by 
friendly  conferences.  We  may  pore  upon  a  knotty  point 
in  solitary  meditation  many  months  without  a  solution, 
because  perhaps  we  have  gotten  into  a  wrong  tract  of 
thought;  and  our  labour  (while  we  are  pursuing  a  false 
scent)  is  not  only  useless  and  unsuccessful,  but  it  leads 
us  perhaps  into  a  long  train  of  error  for  want  of  being 
corrected  in  the  first  step.  But  if  we  note  down  this 
difficulty  when  we  read  it,  we  may  propose  it  to  an  in- 
genious correspondent  when  we  see  him;  we  may  be  re- 
lieved in  a  moment,  and  find  the  difficulty  vanish:  he 
beholds  the  object  perhaps  in  a  different  view,  sets  it  be- 
fore us  in  quite  another  light,  leads  us  at  once  into  evi- 
dence and  truth,  and  that  with  a  delightful  surprise. 

4.  Conversation  calls  out  into  light  what  has  been 
lodged  in  all  the  recesses  and  secret  chambers  of  the 
soul:  by  occasional  hints  and  incidents  it  brings  old  useful 
notions  into  remembrance;  it  unfolds  and  displays  the 
hidden  treasures  of  knowledge  with  which  reading,  ob- 
servation, and  study,  had  before  furnished  the  mind. 
By  mutual  discourse  the  soul  is  awakened  and  allured 
to  bring  forth  its  hoards  of  knowledge,  and  it  learns  how 
to  render  them  most  useful  to  mankind.  A  man  of  vast 
reading  without  conversation  is  like  a  miser,  who  lives 
only  to  himself 

5.  In  free  and  friendly  conversation,  our  intellectual 
powers  are  more  animated,  and  our  spirits  act  with  a 
superior  vigour  in  tlie  quest  and  pursuit  of  unknown 
truths.     There  is  a  sharpness  and  sagacity  of  thought 


OF  IMPROVEMENT  COMPARED.  29 

that  attends  conversation  beyond  what  we  find  whilst 
we  are  shut  up  reading  and  musing  in  our  retirements. 
Our  souls  may  be  serene  in  solitude,  but  not  sparkling, 
though  perliaps  we  are  employed  in  reading  the  works 
of  the  brightest  writers.  Often  has  it  happened  in  free 
discourse,  that  new  thoughts  are  strangely  struck  out, 
and  the  seeds  of  truth  sparkle  and  blaze  through  the 
company,  which  in  calm  and  silent  reading  would  never 
have  been  excited.  By  conversation  you  will  both  give 
and  receive  this  benefit;  as  flints,  when  put  into  motion, 
and  striking  against  each  other,  produce  living  fire  on 
both  sides,  which  would  never  have  arisen  from  the 
same  hard  materials  in  a  state  of  rest. 

6.  In  generous  conversation,  amongst  ingenious  and 
learned  men,  we  have  a  great  advantage  of  proposing 
our  private  opinions,  and  of  bringing  our  own  sentiments 
to  the  test,  and  learning  in  a  more  compendious  and 
safer  way  what  the  world  will  judge  of  them,  how  man- 
kind will  receive  them,  what  objections  may  be  raised 
against  them,  what  defects  there  are  in  our  scheme,  and 
how  to  correct  our  own  mistakes;  which  advantages  are 
not  so  easy  to  be  obtained  by  our  own  private  medita- 
tions: for  the  pleasure  we  take  in  our  own  notions,  and 
the  passion  of  self-love,  as  well  as  the  narrowness  of 
our  views,  tempt  us  to  pass  too  favourable  an  opinion 
on  our  own  schemes;  whereas  the  variety  of  genius  in 
our  several  associates  will  give  happy  notices  how  our 
opinions  will  stand  in  the  view  of  mankind. 

7.  It  is  also  another  considerable  advantage  of  con- 
versation, that  it  furnishes  the  student  with  the  know- 
ledge of  men  and  the  affairs  of  life,  as  reading  furnishes 
him  with  book  learning.  A  man  who  dwells  all  his  days 
among  books  may  have  amassed  together  a  vast  heap 
of  notions;  but  he  may  be  a  mere  scholar,  which  is  a 
contemptible  sort  of  character  in  the  world.  A  hermit, 
who  has  been  shut  up  in  his  cell  in  a  college,  has  con- 
tracted a  sort  of  mould  and  rust  upon  his  soul,  and  all 
his  airs  of  behaviour  have  a  certain  awkwardness  in  them; 
but  these  awkward  airs  are  worn  away  by  degrees  in 
company:  the  rust  and  the  mould  are  filed  and  brushed 
off  by  polite  conversation.     The  scholar  now  becomes 

3* 


so  THE  FIVE  METHODS 

a  citizen  or  a  gentleman,  a  neighbour,  and  a  friend;  he 
learns  how  to  dress  his  sentiments  in  the  fairest  colours, 
as  well  as  to  set  them  in  the  strongest  light.  Thus  he 
brings  out  his  notions  with  honour;  he  makes  some  use 
of  thern  in  the  world,  and  improves  the  theory  by  the 
practice. 

But  before  we  proceed  too  far  in  finishing  a  bright  cha- 
racter by  conversation,  we  should  consider  that  some- 
thing else  is  necessary  besides  an  acquaintance  with  men 
and  books:  and  therefore  I  add, 

V.  Mere  lectures,  reading,  and  conversation,  without 
thinking,  are  not  sufficient  to  make  a  man  of  knowledge 
and  wisdom.  It  is  our  own  thought  and  reflection,  study 
and  meditation,  must  attend  all  the  other  methods  of  im- 
provement, and  perfect  them.  It  carries  these  advan- 
tages with  it: 

1.  Though  observation  and  instruction,  reading  and 
conversation,  may  furnish  us  with  many  ideas  of  men 
and  things,  yet  it  is  our  own  meditation,  and  the  labour 
of  our  own  thoughts,  that  must  form  our  judgment  of 
things.  Our  own  thoughts  should  join  or  disjoin  these 
ideas  in  a  proposition  for  ourselves:  it  is  our  own  mind 
that  must  judge  for  ourselves  concerning  the  agreement 
or  disagreement  of  ideas,  and  form  propositions  of  truth 
out  of  them.  Reading  and  conversation  may  acquaint 
us  with  many  truths,  and  with  many  arguments  to  sup- 
port them;  but  it  is  our  own  study  and  reasoning  that 
must  determine  whether  these  propositions  are  true,  and 
whether  these  arguments  are  just  and  solid. 

It  is  confessed  there  are  a  thousand  things  which  our 
eyes  have  not  seen,  and  which  would  never  come  within 
the  reach  of  our  personal  and  immediate  knowledge  and 
observation,  because  of  the  distance  of  times  and  places: 
these  must  be  known  by  consulting  other  persons;  and 
that  is  done  either  in  their  writings  or  in  their  discourses. 
But  after  all,  let  this  be  a  fixed  point  with  us,  that  it  is 
our  own  reflection  and  judgment  must  determine  how 
far  we  should  receive  that  which  books  or  men  inform 
us  of,  and  how  far  they  are  worthy  of  our  assent  and 
credit. 

2.  It  is  meditation  and  study  that  transfers  and  con- 


OF  IMPROVEMENT  COMPARED.  31 

veys  the  notions  and  sentiments  of  other?  to  ourselves, 
so  as  to  make  them  properly  our  own.  It  is  our  own 
judgment  upon  them,  as  well  as  our  memory  of  iliem, 
that  makes  them  become  our  own  property.  It  does  as 
it  were  concoct  our  intellectual  food,  and  turns  it  into  a 
part  of  ourselves:  just  as  a  man  may  call  his  limbs  and 
his  flesh  his  own,  whether  he  borrowed  the  materials 
from  the  ox  or  the  slieep,  from  the  lark  or  the  lobster: 
whether  he  derived  it  from  corn  or  milk,  the  fiuits  of  the 
trees,  or  the  herbs  and  roots  of  the  earth;  it  is  all  now 
become  one  substance  with  himself,  and  he  wields  and 
manages  those  muscles  and  limbs  for  his  own  proper  pur- 
poses, which  once  were  the  substance  of  otlier  animals 
or  vegetables:  that  very  substance  which  last  week  was 
grazingr  in  rhe  field  or  swimming  in  the  sea,  waving  in 
the  milk-pail,  or  glowing  in  the  garden,  is  now  become 
part  of  the  man. 

3.  By  study  and  meditation  we  improve  the  hints  that 
we  have  acquired  by  observation,  conversation,  and  read- 
ing: we  take  more  time  in  thinking,  and  by  the  labour 
of  the  mind  we  penetrate  deeper  into  the  themes  of 
knowledge,  and  carry  our  thoughts  sometimes  nmch  far- 
ther on  many  subjects,  than  we  ever  met  with,  either  in 
the  books  of  the  dead  or  discourses  of  the  living.  It  is 
our  own  reasoning  that  draws  out  one  truth  from  another, 
and  forms  a  whole  scheme  or  science  from  a  few  hints 
which  we  borrowed  elsewhere. 

By  a  survey  of  these  things  we  may  justly  conclude, 
that  he  who  spends  all  his  time  in  hearing  lectures,  or 
poring  upon  books,  without  observation,  meditation,  or 
converse,  will  have  but  a  mere  historical  knowledije  of 
learning,  and  be  able  only  to  tell  what  others  have 
known  or  said  on  the  subject:  he  that  lets  all  his  time 
flow  away  in  converpation,  without  due  observation, 
reading,  or  study,  will  gain  but  a  slight  and  superficial 
knowledge,  which  will  be  in  danger  of  vanishing  with 
the  voice  of  the  speaker:  and  he  that  confines  himself 
merely  to  his  closet,  and  his  own  narrow  observation  of 
things,  and  is  taught  only  by  his  own  solitary  thoughts, 
without  instruction  bv  lectures,  reading,  or  free  conver- 
sation, will  be  in  danger  of  a  narrow  spirit,  a  vain  con- 


32  RULES    RELATINTG 

ceit  of  himself,  and  an  unreasonable  contempt  of  others; 
and  after  all,  he  will  obtain  but  a  very  limited  and  im- 
perfect view  and  knowledge  of  things,  and  he  will  sel- 
dom learn  how  to  make  that  knowledge  useful. 

Tliese  five  methods  of  improvement  should  be  pursued 
jointly,  and  go  hand  in  hand,  where  our  circumstances 
are  so  happy  as  to  find  opportunity  and  conveniency  to 
enjoy  them  all;  though  Iniust  give  opinion  that  two  of 
tiieni,  viz:  reading  and  meditation,  should  employ  nmch 
more  of  our  time  than  public  lectures,  or  converbation 
and  discourse.  As  for  observation,  we  may  be  always 
acquiring  knowledge  that  way,  whether  we  are  alone  or 
ill  company. 

But  it  will  be  for  our  further  improvement,  if  we  go 
over  all  these  five  methods  of  obtaining  knowledge  more 
distinctly  and  more  at  large,  and  see  what  special  ad- 
vances in  useful  science  we  may  draw  from  them  all. 


CHAPTER  HI. 

RULES    RELATING    TO    OBSERVATION. 

Though  observation,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word, 
and  as  it  is  distinguislied  from  meditation  and  study,  is 
the  first  means  of  improvement,  and  in  its  strictest  sense 
does  not  include  in  it  any  reasonings  of  the  mind  upon 
the  things  which  we  observe,  or  inferences  drawn  from 
them;  yet  the  motions  of  the  mind  are  so  exceedingly 
Bvvift,  that  it  is  hardly  possible  for  a  thinking  man  to 
gain  experiences  or  observations  without  making  some 
secret  and  short  reflections  upon  them,  and  therefore  in 
giving  a  few  directions  concerning  this  method  of  im- 
provement, I  shall  not  so  narrowly  confine  myself  to  the 
first  mere  impression  of  object  on  the  mind  by  observa- 
tion; but  include  also  some  hints  which  relate  to  the  first, 
most  easy,  and  obvious  reflections  or  reasonings  which 
arise  from  them. 

1.  Let  the  enlargement  of  your  knowledge  be  one 
constant  view  and  design  in  life;  since  there  is  no  time 


TO    OBSERVATION.  S3 

or  place,  no  transactions,  occurrences,  or  engagements 
in  life,  which  exclude  us  from  this  method  of  improving 
the  mind.  When  we  are  alone,  even  in  darkness  and 
silence,  we  may  converse  with  our  own  hearts,  observe 
the  working  of  our  own  spirits,  and  reflect  upon  tlie  in- 
ward motions  of  our  own  passions  in  some  of  the  latest 
occurrences  in  life;  we  may  acquaint  ourselves  with  the 
powers  and  properties,  tiie  tendencies  and  inclinations 
both  of  body  and  spirit,  and  gain  a  more  intimate  know- 
ledge of  ourselves.  When  we  are  in  company,  we  may 
discover  something  more  of  human  natiu-e,  of  human 
passions  and  follies,  and  of  himian  affairs,  vices,  and  vir- 
tues, by  conversing  with  mankind,  and  observing  their 
conduct.  Nor  is  there  any  thing  more  valuable  than 
the  knowledge  of  ourselves,  and  the  knowledge  of  men, 
except  it  be  the  knowledge  of  God  who  made  us,  and 
our  relation  to  him  as  our  Governor. 

When  we  are  in  the  house  or  the  city,  wheresoever 
we  turn  our  eyes,  we  see  the  works  of  men;  when  we 
are  abroad  in  the  country,  we  behold  more  of  the  works 
of  God.  The  skies  above,  and  the  ground  beneath  us, 
and  the  animal  and  vegetable  world  round  about  us, 
may  entertain  our  observation  with  ten  thousand  varie- 
ties. 

Endeavour  therefore  to  derive  some  instruction  or  im- 
provement, of  the  mind  from  every  thing  which  you  see 
or  hear,  from  every  thing  whicii  occurs  in  human  life, 
from  every  thing  within  you  or  without  you. 

Fetch  down  some  knowledge  from  the  clouds,  the 
stars,  ihe  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  revolutions  of  all  the 
planets.  Dig  and  draw  up  some  valuable  meditations 
from  the  depths  of  the  earth,  and  searcii  thetn  through 
the  vast  oceans  of  water.  Extract  some  intellectual 
improvetnents  from  the  minerals  and  metals;  from  the 
wonders  of  nature  among  the  vegetables,  and  herbs, 
trees,  and  flowers.  Learn  some  lessons  from  the  birds 
and  the  beasts,  and  tlie  meanest  insect.  Read  the  wis- 
dom of  God,  and  his  admirable  contrivance  in  them  all: 
read  his  almighty  power,  his  rich  and  various  goodness 
in  ail  the  works  of  his  hands. 

From  the  day  and  the  night,  the  hours  and  the  flying 


84  RULES    RELATING 

minutes,  learn  a  wise  improvement  of  time,  and  bo 
watchful  to  seize  every  opportunity  to  increase  in  know- 
ledge. 

From  the  vicissitudes  and  revolutions  of  nations  and 
families,  and  from  the  various  occurrences  of  the  world, 
learn  the  instability  of  mortal  affairs,  the  uncertainty 
of  life,  the  certainty  of  death.  From  a  coffin  and  a 
funeral,  learn  to  meditate  upon  your  departure. 

From  the  vices  and  fijllies  of  others,  observe  what  is 
hateful  in  them;  consider  how  such  a  practice  looks  in 
another  person,  and  remember  that  it  looks  as  ill  or 
worse  in  yourself  From  the  virtue  of  others,  loam 
eomething  worthy  of  your  imitation. 

From  the  deformity,  the  distress,  or  calamity  of  others, 
derive  lessons  of  tliaiikf  iliiess  to  God,  and  hymns  of 
g-rateful  praise  to  your  Creator,  Governor,  and  Bene- 
factcjr,  vvlio  has  formed  you  in  a  better  mould,  and 
guarded  you  from  those  evils.  Learn  also  the  sacred 
lesson  of  contentment  in  your  own  estate,  and  compas- 
sion to  your  neighbour  under  his  miseries. 

From  your  natural  powers,  sensations,  judgment, 
memory,  hands,  feet,  &c.  make  this  inference,  tliat  they 
were  not  given  you  for  nothing,  but  for  some  useful  em- 
ployment to  the  honour  of  your  Maker,  and  for  the  good 
of  your  fellow  creatures,  as  well  as  for  your  own  best 
interest  and  final  happuiess. 

From  the  sorrows,  the  pains,  the  sicknesses,  and  suf- 
ferings that  attend  you,  learn  the  evil  of  sin,  and  the 
imperfection  of  your  present  state.  From  your  own 
sins  and  follies,  learn  the  patience  of  God  toward  you, 
and  the  practice  of  humility  toward  God  and  man. 

Thus  from  every  appearance  in  nature,  and  from 
every  occurrence  of  life,  you  may  derive  natural,  moral, 
and  religious  observations  to  entertain  your  minds,  as 
well  as  rules  of  conduct  in  the  affairs  relating  to  this 
life  and  that  which  is  to  come. 

II.  In  order  to  furnish  the  mind  with  a  rich  variety 
of  ideas,  tiie  laudable  curiosity  of  young  people  should 
be  indulged  and  gratified,  rather  than  discouraged.  It 
is  a  very  hopeful  sign  in  young  persons,  to  see  them  cu- 
rious in  observing,  and  inquisitive  in  searching  into  the 


TO    OBSERVATION^.  36 

greatest  part  of  things  that  occur;  nor  should  such  aa 
inquiring  temper  be  frowned  into  silence,  nor  be  rigor- 
ously restrained,  but  should  rather  be  satisfied  with  pro- 
per answers  given  to  all  those  queries. 

For  this  reason  also,  where  time  and  fortune  allow  it, 
young  people  should  be  led  into  company  at  proper  sea- 
sons, should  be  carried  abroad  to  see  the  fields,  and  tiie 
woods,  and  the  rivers,  the  buildings,  towns,  and  cities 
distant  from  their  own  dwelling;  they  should  be  enter- 
tained with  the  sigiit  of  straoge  birds,  beasts,  fishes,  in- 
sects, vegetables,  and  productions  both  of  nature  and 
art  of  every  kind,  whetlier  tiiey  are  the  products  of 
their  own  or  foreign  nations:  and  in  due  time,  where 
Providence  ffives  opportunity,  they  may  travel  under  a 
wise  inspector  or  tutor  to  different  parts  of  the  world  for 
the  same  end,  that  tliey  may  bring  home  treasures  of 
useful  knowledge. 

III.  Among  all  these  observations  write  down  what 
is  most  remarkable  and  uncommon:  reserve  these  re- 
marks in  store  for  proper  occasions,  and  at  proper  sea- 
sons take  a  review  of  them.  Such  a  practice  will  give 
you  a  habit  of  useful  thinking;  this  will  secure  the 
workings  of  your  soul  from  running  to  waste;  and  by 
this  means  even  your  looser  moments  will  turn  to  hap- 
py account  both  here  and  hereafter. 

And  whatever  useful  observations  have  been  made, 
let  them  be  at  least  some  part  of  the  subject  of  your 
conversation  among  your  friends  at  next  meeting. 

Let  the  circumstances  or  situation  in  life  be  what  or 
where  they  will,  a  man  should  never  neglect  this  im- 
provement which  may  be  derived  from  observation. 
Let  him  travel  into  the  East  or  West  Indies,  and  fulfil 
the  duties  of  the  military  or  the  mercantile  life  there; 
let  him  rove  through  tlie  earth  or  the  sea>s,  for  his  own 
humour  as  a  traveller,  or  pursue  his  diversions  in  what 
part  of  the  world  he  pleases  as  a  gentleman:  let  pros- 
perous or  adverse  fortune  call  him  to  the  most  distant 
parts  of  the  globe;  still  let  him  carry  on  his  knowledge 
and  the  improvement  of  his  soul  by  wise  observations. 
In  due  time,  by  this  means,  lie  may  render  himself  some 
way  useful  to  the  societies  of  mankind. 


S6  RULES    HEI.ATING 

TheobaJdino,  in  his  younger  years,  visited  the  forests 
of  Norway  on  the  account  of  trade  and  timber,  and  be- 
sides his  proper  observations  of  the  growth  of  trees  on 
those  northern  mountains,  he  learned  there  was  a  sort 
of  people  called  Fins,  in  those  confines  which  border 
upon  Sweden,  whose  habitation  is  in  the  woods;  and  he 
lived  afterwards  to  give  a  good  account  of  them  and 
some  of  their  customs  to  the  Royal  Society  for  the  im- 
provement of  natural  knowledge.  Puteoli  was  taken 
captive  into  Turkey  in  iiis  youth,  and  travelled  with  his 
master  in  their  holy  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  whereby  he 
became  more  intelhgent  in  the  forms,  ceremonies,  and 
fooleries  of  the  Mahometan  worsiiip,  than  perhaps  any 
Briton  knew  before;  and  by  his  manuscripts  we  are 
more  acquainted  in  this  last  century  with  the  Turkish 
sacreds,  than  any  one  had  ever  informed  us. 

IV.  Let  us  keep  our  minds  as  free  as  possible  from 
passions  and  prejudices;  for  these  will  give  a  wrong  turn 
to  our  observations  both  on  persons  and  things.  The 
eyes  of  a  man  in  the  jaundice  make  yellow  observa- 
tions on  every  thing;  and  the  soul,  tinctured  with  any 
passion  or  prejudice,  diffuses  a  false  colour  over  tiie  real 
appearance  of  things,  and  disguises  many  of  the  com- 
mon occurrences  of  life:  it  never  beholds  things  in  a 
true  light,  nor  suffers  them  to  appear  as  tliey  are. 
Whensoever,  therefore,  you  would  make  proper  obser- 
vations, let  self,  with  all  its  influences,  stand  aside  as 
far  as  possible;  abstract  your  own  interest  and  your  own 
concern  from  them,  and  bid  all  friendships  and  enmities 
stand  aloof  and  keep  out  of  the  way,  in  the  observa- 
tions that  you  make  relating  to  persons  and  tilings. 

If  this  rule  were  well  obeyed,  we  should  be  much 
better  guarded  against  tliose  common  pieces  of  miscon- 
duct in  the  Observations  of  men,  viz:  the  false  judg- 
ments of  pride  and  envy.  How  ready  is  envy  to  min- 
gle with  the  notices  which  we  take  of  other  persons! 
How  often  is  mankind  prone  to  put  an  ill  sense  upon 
the  action  of  their  neighbours,  to  take  a  survey  of  them 
in  an  evil  position  and  in  an  unhappy  light!  And  by 
this  means  we  form  a  worse  opinion  of  our  neighbours 
than  they  deserve;  while  at  the  same  time  pride  and 


,  TO    OBSERVATION.  37 

self-flattery  tempt  us  to  make  unjust  observations  on 
ourselves  in  our  own  favour.  In  all  the  fiivoiirable 
judgments  we  pass  concerning  ourselves,  we  should  al- 
low a  little  abatement  on  this  account. 

V.  In  making  your  observations  on  persons,  take  care 
of  indulging  that  busy  curiosity  which  is  ever  inquiring 
into  private  and  domestic  affairs,  with  an  endless  itch 
of  learning  the  secret  history  of  families.  It  is  but  sel- 
dom that  such  a  prying  curiosity  attains  any  valuable 
ends:  it  often  begets  suspicions,  jealousies,  and  distur- 
bances in  households,  and  it  is  a  frequent  temptation  to 
persons  to  defame  their  neighbours:  some  persons  cannot 
help  telling  wliat  they  know:  a  busybody  is  most  liable 
to  become  a  tattler  upon  every  occasion. 

VI.  Let  your  observation,  even  of  persons  and  their 
conduct,  be  chiefly  designed  in  order  to  lead  you  to  a 
better  acquaintance  with  things,  particularly  with  hu- 
man nature;  and  to  inform  you  what  to  imitate  and 
what  to  avoid,  rather  tlian  to  furnish  out  matter  for  the 
evil  passions  of  the  mind,  or  the  impertinencies  of  dis- 
course and  reproaches  of  the  tongue. 

VII.  Though  it  may  be  proper  sometimes  to  make 
your  observations  concerning  persons  as  well  as  things 
the  subject  of  your  discoui-se  in  learned  or  useful  con- 
versations, yet  what  remarks  you  make  on  particular 
persons,  particularly  to  their  disadvantage,  should  for 
the  most  part  lie  hid  in  your  own  breast,  till  some  just 
and  apparent  occasion,  some  necessary  call  of  Provi- 
dence, leads  you  to  speak  to  them. 

If  the  character  or  conduct  which  you  observe  be 
greatly  culpable,  it  should  so  much  the  less  be  published. 
You  may  treasure  up  such  remarks  of  the  follies,  inde- 
cencies, or  vices  of  your  neighbours  as  may  be  a  con- 
stant guard  against  your  practice  of  the  same,  without 
exposing  the  reputation  of  your  neighbour  on  that  ac- 
count. It  is  a  good  old  rule,  that  our  conversation 
should  rather  be  laid  out  on  things  than  on  persons;  and 
this  rule  should  generally  be  o!)served,  unless  names  be 
conceah^d,  wheresoever  the  faults  or  follies  of  mankind 
are  our  pre^icnt  theme. 

Our  late  Archbishop  Tillotson  has  written  a  small  but 
4 


38  OF   BOOKS    AND    READING. 

excellent  discourse  on  evil  speaking,  wherein  he  admira- 
bly explairrs,  limits,  and  applies,  that  general  apostolic 
precept,  Speak  evil  of  no  man,  Tit.  iii.  2. 

VIII.  Be  not  too  hasty  to  erect  general  theories  from 
a  few  particular  observations,  appearances,  or  e.xperi- 
ments.  Tliis  is  whattiie  logicians  call  a  filse  induction. 
When  general  observations  are  drawn  from  so  many 
particulars  as  to  become  certain  and  indubitable,  these 
are  jewels  of  knowledge,  comprehending  great  treasure 
in  little  room:  bnt  they  are  therefore  to  be  made  with 
the  greater  care  and  caution,  lest  errors  beconre  large  and 
diffusive,  if  we  should  mistake  in  these  general  notions. 

A  hasty  determination  of  some  universal  principles, 
without  a  due  survey  of  all  the  particular  cases  which 
mav  be  included  in  them,  is  the  way  to  lay  a  trap  for 
our  own  understandings,  in  their  pursuit  of  any  subject, 
and  we  shall  often  be  taken  ca[)tives  into  mistal^ie  and 
falsehood.  Niveo  in  his  youth  observed,  that  on  three 
Christmas  Days  together  there  fell  a  good  (piantity  of 
snow,  and  now  hath  writ  it  down  in  his  almanac,  as  a 
part  of  his  wise  remarks  on  the  weather,  that  it  will  al- 
ways snow  at  Christmas.  Enron,  a  younff  lad,  took  no- 
tice ten  times,  that  there  was  a  sliarp  frost  when  the 
wind  was  in  the  north-east,  therefore,  in  the  middle  of 
the  last  July,  he  almost  expected  it  should  freeze,  be- 
cause the  weatlrer-cocks  showed  him  a  north-east  wind; 
and  he  was  still  more  disappointed,  when  he  found  it  a 
very  sultry  season.  It  is  the  same  hasty  judgment  that 
hatli  thrown  scandal  on  a  whole  nation  for  the  sake  of 
some  culpable  characters  belonging  to  several  particular 
natives  of  that  country;  whereas  all  the  Frenchmen  are 
not  gay  and  airy;  all  the  Italians  are  not  jealous  and  re- 
vengeful; nor  are  all  the  English  overrun  with  the  spleen. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

OF    BOOKS    AND    READING. 

I.  The  world  is  full  of  Books;  but  there  are  multi- 
tudes which  are  so  ill  written,  they  were  never  worth 


OF    BOOKS    AND    READING.  89 

any  man's  reading;  and  there  are  thousands  more  which 
may  be  good  in  their  kind,  yet  are  worth  notliing  whetj 
the  month  or  year,  or  occasion  is  past  for  which  tliey 
were  written.  Otliers  may  be  valuable  in  themselves 
for  some  special  purpose,  or  in  some  peculiar  science, 
but  are  not  fit  to  be  peruse^  by  any  but  those  who  are 
engaged  in  that  particular  science  or  business.  To  what 
use  is  it  for  a  divine  or  physician,  or  a  tradesman,  to 
read  over  the  huge  volumes  of  repoils  of  judged  cases 
in  the  law?  or  fur  a  lawyer  to  learn  Hebrew,  and  read 
the  Rabbins?  It  is  of  vast  advantage  for  improvement 
of  knowledge,  and  saving  lime,  for  a  young  man  to 
have  the  most  proper  books  for  his  reading  recommend- 
ed by  a  judicious  friend. 

II.  Books  of  importance  of  any  kind,  and  especially 
complete  treatises  on  any  subject,  siiould  be  first  read  in 
a  more  general  and  cursory  manner,  to  learn  a  little 
what  the  treatise  promises,  and  what  you  may  expect 
from  the  writer's  manner  and  skill.  And  for  this  end  I 
would  advise  always  that  the  preface  be  read,  and  a  sur- 
vey taken  of  the  table  of  contents,  if  there  be  one,  be- 
fore the  survey  of  tiie  book.  By  this  means  you  will 
not  only  be  better  fitted  to  give  the  book  the  first  read- 
ing, but  you  will  be  much  assisted  in  your  second  peru- 
sal of  it,  which  should  be  done  with  greater  attention 
and  deliberation,  and  you  will  learn  with  more  ease  and 
readiness  wliat  the  author  pretends  to  teach.  In  your 
reading,  mark  what  is  new  or  unknown  to  you  before 
and  review  those  cliapters,  pages,  or  paragraplis.  Un- 
less a  reader  has  an  uncommon  and  most  retentive  me- 
mory, 1  may  venture  to  aflirin,  that  tiiere  is  scarce  any 
book  or  chapter  worth  reading  once,  that  is  not  worthy 
of  a  second  perusal.  At  least  to  take  a  careful  review 
of  all  the  lines  or  paragraplis  which  you  marked,  and 
make  a  recollection  of  tlie  sections  which  you  thought 
truly  valuable. 

There  is  another  reason  also  why  1  would  choose  to 
take  a  superficial  and  cursory  survey  of  a  book,  before  I 
sit  down  to  read  it,  and  dwell  upon  it  with  studious  at- 
tention; and  that  is,  that  there  may  be  several  difficul 
ties  in  it  which  we  cannot  easily  understand  and  con- 


40  OF   BOOKS    AND    READING. 

qner  at  the  first  reading,  for  want  of  a  fuller  compre- 
hension of  the  autlior^s  whole  scheme.  And  tiierefore 
in  such  treatises,  we  sliould  not  stay  till  we  master  every 
difficulty  at  tiie  first  perusal;  for  perliaps  many  of  these 
would  a'jipear  to  be  solved  when  we  have  proceeded  fur- 
ther in  t!iat  book,  or  would  vanish  of  themselves  upon  a 
second  reading. 

III.  If  three  or  four  persons  agreed  to  read  the  same 
book,  and  each  brings  his  own  remarks  upon  it,  at  some 
set  houis  appointed  for  conversation,  and  they  commu- 
nicate mutually  their  sentiments  on  the  subject,  and  de- 
bate about  it  in  a  friendly  manner,  this  practice  will  ren- 
der the  reading  any  author  more  abundantly  beneficial 
to  any  one  of  them. 

IV.  If  several  persons  engaged  in  the  same  study, 
take  into  their  hands  distinct  treatises  on  one  subject, 
and  appoint  a  season  of  communication  once  a  week, 
they  may  inform  each  other  in  a  brief  manner  concern- 
ing the  sense,  sentiments,  and  methods  of  those  several 
authors,  and  thereby  promote  eacii  other's  iniprovement, 
either  by  recommending  the  perusal  of  the  same  book 
to  their  companions,  or  perhaps  by  satisfying  their  in- 
quiries concerning  it  by  conversation,  without  every  one's 
perusing  it. 

V.  Remember  that  your  business  in  reading  or  in  con- 
versation, especially  on  subjects  of  natural,  moral,  or 
divine  science,  is  not  merely  to  know  tiie  opinion  of  the 
author  or  speaker,  for  this  is  but  the  mere  knowledge  of 
history;  but  your  chief  business  is  to  consider  whether 
their  opinions  are  riglit  or  no,  and  to  improve  your  own 
i'olid  knowledge  on  that  subject  by  meditation  on  the 
themes  of  tlieir  writing  or  discourse.  Deal  freely  with 
every  author  you  read,  and  yield  up  your  assent  only 
to  evidence  and  just  reasoning  on  the  subject. 

Here  I  would  be  understood  to  speak  only  of  human 
authors,  and  not  of  the  sacred  and  inspired  writings. 
In  these  our  business  is  only  to  find  out  the  true  sense, 
and  understand  the  true  meaning  of  the  paragraph  and 
page,  and  our  assent  then  is  bound  to  fullow  when  we 
are  before  satisfied  that  the  writing  is  divine.     Yet  I 


OF    BOOKS    AND    READING.  41 

might  add  also,  that  even  this  is  sufficient  evidence  to 
demand  our  assent. 

But  in  the  composures  of  men,  remember  you  are  a 
man  as  well  as  they;  and  it  is  not  their  reason  but  your 
own  that  is  given  to  guide  you  when  you  arrive  at  years 
of  discretion,  of  manl}'  age  and  judgment. 

VI.  Let  tliis  therefore  be  your  practice,  especially 
after  you  have  gone  through  one  course  of  any  science 
in  your  academical  studies;  if  a  writer  on  tliat  subject 
maintains  the  same  sentiments  as  you  do,  yet  if  he  does 
not  explain  his  ideas  or  prove  his  positions  well,  mark 
the  faults  or  defects,  and  endeavour  to  do  better,  either 
in  the  margin  of  your  book,  or  rather  in  some  papers  ot 
your  own,  or  at  least  let  it  be  done  in  your  private 
meditations.     As  for  instance: — 

Where  the  author  is  obscure,  enlighten  him:  where  he 
is  imperfect,  supply  his  deficiencies:  wiiere  he  is  too  brief 
and  concise,  ampHfy  a  little,  and  set  his  notions  in  a 
fairer  view:  where  he  is  redundant,  mark  those  para- 
graphs to  be  retrenched:  when  he  trifles  and  grows  im- 
pertinent, abandon  those  passages  or  pages:  when  he 
argues,  observe  whether  his  reasons  be  conclusive:  if 
the  conclusion  be  true,  and  yet  the  argument  weak,  en- 
deavour to  confirm  it  by  belter  proofs:  where  he  derives 
or  infers  any  proposition  darkly  and  doubtfully,  make  the 
justice  of  tlie  inference  appear,  and  make  tut  ther  inferen- 
ces or  corollaries,  if  such  occur  to  your  mind:  where  you 
suppose  he  is  in  a  mistake,  propose  your  objections  and 
correct  his  sentiments:  what  he  writes  so  well  as  to  ap- 
prove itself  of  your  judgment,  both  as  just  and  useful, 
treasure  it  up  in  your  memory,  and  count  it  a  part  of 
your  intellectual  gains. 

Note,  Many  of  tiiese  same  directions,  which  I  have 
now  given,  n)ay  be  practised  with  regard  to  conversa- 
tion as  well  as  reading,  in  order  to  render  it  useful  in 
^he  most  extensive  and  lasting  manner. 

VII.  Other  things  also  of  the  like  nature  may  be  use- 
fully practised  witii  regard  to  the  authors  which  you 
read,  viz.  If  the  method  of  a  book  be  irregular,  reduce 
it  into  form,  by  a  little  analysis  of  your  own,  or  by  hints 
m   the   margin:    If  those   tilings  are  heaped   together, 

1  4* 


42  OF    BOOKS    AND   READING. 

which  should  be  separated,  you  may  wisely  disting-uish 
and  divide  them:  if  several  thing's  relating-  to  the  same 
subject  are  scattered  up  and  down  separately  t'iirongh 
the  treatise,  you  may  bring  them  all  to  one  view  by 
references;  or  if  the  matter  of  a  book  be  really  valuable 
and  deserving,  you  may  throw  it  i.!)to  a  better  method, 
reduce  it  to  a  more  logical  scheme,  or  abridge  it  into  a 
lesser  form:  all  these  practices  will  have  a  tendency  both 
to  advance  your  skill  in  logic  and  method,  to  improve 
your  judgment  in  general,  and  to  give  you  a  fuller  survey 
of  that  subject  in  particular.  When  you  have  finished 
the  treatise  with  all  your  observations  upon  it,  recollect 
and  determine  what  real  improvements  you  have  made 
by  reading  that  autiior. 

VIII.  If  a  book  has  no  index  to  it,  or  good  table  of 
contents,  it  is  very  useful  to  make  one  as  you  are  read- 
ing it:  not  with  that  exactness  as  to  include  the  sense  of 
every  pawe  and  paragraph,  which  should  be  done  if  you 
designed  to  print  it;  but  it  is  sufficient  in  your  index  to 
take  notice  only  of  those  parts  of  the  book  which  are 
new  to  you,  or  which  you  tliink  well  written,  and  well 
worthy  of  your  remembrance  or  review. 

Shall  1  be  so  free  as  to  assure  my  yoimger  friends, 
from  my  own  experience,  that  these  methods  of  reading" 
will  cost  some  pains  in  the  first  year  of  your  study,  and 
especially  in  the  first  autiiors  which  you  peruse  in  any 
science,  or  on  any  particular  subject:  but  the  profit  will 
richlv  compensate  the  pains.  And  in  the  following  years 
of  life,  after  you  have  read  a  few  valuable  books  on  any 
special  subject  in  this  manner,  it  will  be  easy  to  read 
others  of  the  same  kind,  oecause  you  will  not  usually 
find  very  much  new  matter  in  them  which  you  iiave  not 
already  examined. 

If  the  writer  be  remarkable  for  any  peculiar  excellen- 
cies or  defects  in  his  style  or  manner  of  writing,  make 
just  observations  upon  this  also;  and  whatsoever  orna- 
ments you  find  there,  or  whatsoever  blemislies  occur  in 
the  language  or  manner  of  the  writer,  you  may  make 
just  remarks  upon  them.  And  remember  that  one  book 
read  over  in  this  manner,  with  all  this  laborious  rnedita.- 


OF   BOOKS    AND    READING.  49 

tion,  will  tend  more  to  enrich  your  understanding,  than 
the  skinitning'  over  the  surface  of  twenty  authors. 

JX.  By  perusing  books  in  the  manner  I  have  de- 
scribed, you  will  make  all  your  reading:  subservient  not 
only  to  tiie  enlargement  of  your  treasures  of  knowledge, 
but  also  to  the  improvement  of  your  reasoning  ()nwers. 

There  are  many  who  read  with  constancy  and  dili- 
gence, and  yet  make  no  advances  in  true  knowledge  by 
it.  They  are  deliglited  witii  the  notions  which  they 
read  or  hear,  as  they  would  be  with  stories  that  are  told; 
but  tliey  do  not  weigh  them  in  their  minds  as  in  a  just 
balance,  in  order  to  determine  their  truth  or  falsehood; 
they  make  no  observations  upon  them,  or  inferetices 
from  them.  Perltaps  tlieir  eye  slides  over  the  pages,  or 
the  words  slide  over  their  ears,  and  vanish  like  a  riiap- 
sody  of  evening  tales,  or  the  shadows  of  a  cloud  tiying 
over  a  green  field  in  a  summer's  day. 

Or  if  tliey  review  them  sufficiently  to  fix  them  in 
their  remembrance,  it  is  merely  with  a  design  to  tell  the 
tale  over  again,  and  show  what  men  of  learning  they 
are.  Thus  they  dream  out  their  days  in  a  course  of 
reading,  without  real  advantage.  As  a  man  may  be 
eating  all  day,  and,  for  want  of  digestion  is  never  nour- 
ished; so  those  endless  readers  may  cram  themselves  in 
vain  with  intellectual  food,  and  without  real  improve- 
ment of  their  minds,  for  want  of  digesting  it  by  proper 
reflections. 

X.  Be  diligent  therefore  in  observing  these  directions. 
Enter  into  the  sense  and  arguments  of  tlie  authors  you 
read;  examine  all  their  proofs,  and  then  judge  of  the 
truth  or  falsehood  of  their  opinions;  and  thereby  you 
shall  not  only  gain  a  rich  increase  of  your  understand- 
ing, by  those  truths  which  the  author  teaches,  when  you 
see  tfiem  well  supported,  but  you  shall  acquire  also  by 
degrees  a  habit  of  judging  justly,  and  of  reasoning  well, 
in  imitation  of  the  good  writer  whose  works  you  peruse. 

This  is  laborious  indeed,  and  the  mind  is  backward 
to  undergo  the  fatigue  of  weighing  every  argument,  and 
tracing  every  thing  to  its  original.  It  is  mucii  less  la- 
bour to  take  all  things  upon  trust:  believing  is  much 
easier  than  arguing.     But  when  Studentio  had  once 


44  OF   BOOKS    AND    READING. 

persuaded  his  mind  to  tie  itself  down  to  this  method 
which  1  have  prescribed,  lie  sensibly  gained  an  admira- 
ble facility  to  read,  and  j»idge  of  wimt  he  read  by  his 
daily  practice  of  it,  and  the  man  made  large  advances 
in  the  pursuit  of  truth;  vviiile  Plumbinus  and  Pliimeo 
made  less  progress  in  knowledge,  though  they  had  read 
over  more  folios.  Plumeo  skimmed  over  the  pages  like 
a  swalluw  over  the  flowery  meads  in  iM.ay.  Planibinus 
read  every  line  and  syllable,  but  did  not  give  himself  the 
trouble  of  thinking  and  judging  about  them.  They 
both  could  boast  in  company  of  their  great  reading,  for 
they  knew  more  titles  and  pages  than  Studentio,  but 
were  far  less  acquainted  with  science. 

I  confess  those  whose  reading  is  designed  only  to  fit 
them  for  much  talk,  and  little  knowledge,  may  content 
themselves  to  run  over  their  authors  in  such  a  sudden 
and  trifling  way;  they  may  devour  libraries  in  this  man- 
ner, yet  be  poor  reasoners  at  last;  and  have  no  solid 
wisdom  or  true  learning.  The  traveller  who  walks  on 
fair  and  softly  in  a  couise  that  f)oints  right,  and  examines 
every  turning  before  lie  ventures  upon  it,  will  come 
sooner  and  safer  to  iiis  journey's  end,  tiian  he  who  runs 
through  every  lane  he  meets,  though  he  gallops  full 
speed  all  the  day.  The  man  of  much  readujg,  and  a 
large  retentive  memory,  but  without  meditation,  tnay 
become,  in  the  sense  of  the  world,  a  knowing  man;  and 
if  he  converse  much  with  the  ancients,  he  may  attain 
the  fame  of  learning  too;  but  he  s()ends  his  days  afar  ofl" 
from  wisdom  and  true  judgment,  and  possesses  very 
little  ol  the  substantial  riches  of  the  mind. 

XI.  Never  apply  yourselves  to  read  any  human  author 
with  a  determination  beforehand  either  for  or  ;igainst 
him,  or  with  a  settled  resolution  to  believe  or  disbelieve, 
to  conflrm  or  to  oppose,  wiiatsoever  he  saith;  but  always 
read  with  a  design  to  lay  your  mind  open  to  trutli,  and 
to  cm-brace  it  wheresoever  you  find  it,  as  well  as  to  reject 
every  falsehood,  though  it  appear  under  ever  so  fair  a 
disguise.  How  unhappy  are  those  men  who  seldom 
take  an  author  into  their  hands  but  they  have  deterinined 
before  tliey  begin  whether  they  will  like  or  dislike  him! 
They  have  got  some  notion  of  his  name,  his  character. 


OF   BOOKS    AND   READING.  45 

his  party,  or  his  principles,  by  general  conversation,  or 
perhaps  by  some  slight  view  of  a  few  pages;  and  liaving 
all  their  own  opinions  adjusted  beforehand,  they  read 
all  that  he  writes  with  a  prepossession  either  for  or  against 
him.  Unhappy  those  who  hunt  and  purvey  for  a  party, 
and  scrape  together  out  of  every  author  all  those  things, 
and  tiiose  only,  which  favour  their  own  tenets,  while 
they  despise  and  neglect  all  the  rest! 

Xll.  Yet  take  this  caution.  1  would  not  be  under- 
stood here,  as  though  I  persuaded  a  person  to  live  with- 
out any  settled  principles  at  all,  by  which  to  judge  of 
men,  and  books,  and  things:  or  that  I  would  keep  a  man 
always  doubting  about  his  foundations.  The  chief  things 
that  1  design  in  tiiis  advice,  are  these  three: 

1.  That  after  our  most  necessary  and  important  prin- 
ciples of  science,  prudence,  and  religion,  are  settled  upon 
good  grounds,  with  regard  to  our  present  conduct  and 
our  future  hopes,  we  should  read  with  a  just  freedom 
of  thought  all  those  books  which  treat  of  such  subjects 
as  may  admit  of  doubt  and  reasonable  dispute.  Nor 
should  any  of  our  opinions  be  so  resolved  upon,  especially 
in  younger  years,  as  never  to  hear  or  to  bear  an  oppo- 
sition to  them. 

2.  When  we  peruse  those  authors  who  defend  our 
own  settled  sentiments,  we  should  not  take  all  their 
arguments  for  just  and  solid;  but  we  should  make  a  wise 
distinction  between  the  corn  and  the  chatF,  between 
solid  reasoning  and  the  mere  superficial  colours  of  it; 
nor  should  we  readily  swallow  down  all  their  lesser 
opinions  because  we  agree  with  them  in  the  greater. 

3  That  when  we  read  tliose  authors  which  oppose 
our  most  certain  and  established  principles,  we  should 
be  leady  to  receive  any  informations  from  them  in  other 
pomts,  and  not  abandon  at  once  every  thing  tiiey  say, 
though  we  are  well  fixed  in  our  opposition  to  their  main 
point  of  arguing. 

Fas  est  ab  hoste  doceri.         Virg. 

Seize  upon  truth  where'er  'tis  found, 

Amongst  your  fiiends,  amongst  your  foes, 
On  Christian  or  on  heathen  ground; 
The  flower's  divine  where'er  it  grows: 
Neglect  the  prickles  and  assume  the  rose. 


4t3  OF  BOOKS  AND  READING. 

XIII.  What  I  have  said  hitherto  on  this  subject,  re- 
lating to  books  and  reading,  must  be  chietJy  understood 
of  that  sort  of  books,  and  those  hours  of  our  reading  and 
study,  whereijy  we  design  to  improve  the  intellectual 
powers  of  the  mind  witli  natural,  moral,  or  divine  know- 
ledge. As  for  those  treatises  which  are  written  to  di- 
rect or  to  enforce  and  persuade  our  practice,  there  is  one 
thing  further  necessary;  and  that  is,  that  when  our  con- 
sciences are  convinced  tiiat  these  rules  of  prudence  or 
duty  belong  to  us,  and  require  our  conformity  to  them, 
we  should  then  call  ourselves  to  account,  and  inquire 
seriously  wiiether  we  have  put  them  in  practice  or  no; 
we  should  dwell  upon  the  arguments,  and  impress  the 
motives  and  methods  of  persuasion  upon  our  own  hearts, 
till  we  feel  the  force  and  power  of  tliem  inclining  us  to 
the  practice  of  the  things  which  are  there  recommended. 

If  folly  or  vice  be  represented  in  its  open  colours,  or 
its  secret  disu-uises,  let  us  search  our  hearts,  and  review 
our  lives,  and  inquire  how  far  we  are  criminal;  nor  siiould 
we  ever  think  we  have  done  with  the  treatise  while  we 
feel  ourselves  in  soirow  for  our  past  misconduct,  and 
aspiring  afier  a  victory  over  those  vices,  or  till  we  find  a 
cure  of  those  follies  begim  to  be  wronglit  upon  our  souls. 

In  all  our  studies  and  pursuits  of  knowledge,  let  us 
remember  that  virtue  and  vice,  sin  and  holiness,  and  the 
conformation  of  our  hearts  and  lives  to  the  duties  of  true 
religion  and  morality,  are  things  of  far  more  conse- 
quence than  all  the  furniture  of  our  understanding,  and 
the  richest  treasures  of  more  speculative  knowledge;  and 
that  because  they  have  a  more  immediate  and  edectual 
influence  U[)on  our  eternal  felicity  or  eternal  sorrow. 

XIV.  There  is  yet  another  sort  of  books,  of  which  it 
is  proper  I  should  say  something,  while  I  am  treating 
on  this  subject;  and  these  are  iiistory,  poesy,  travels; 
books  of  diversion  or  amusement:  among  which  we  may 
reckon  also  little  common  pamphlets,  newspapers,  or 
Buch  like:  for  many  of  these  1  confess  once  reading  may 
be  sufficient,  where  there  is  a  tolerable  good  memory. 

Or  when  several  persons  are  in  company,  and  one 
reads  to  the  rest  such  a  sort  of  writing,  once  hearing 
may  be  sufficient,  provided  that  every  one  be  so  attcn- 


OF  BOOKS  AND  READING.  47 

live,  and  so  free,  as  to  make  their  occasional  remarks 
oh  such  lines  or  sentences,  such  periods  or  paragraphs, 
as  in  their  opinion  deserve  it.  Now  all  those  paragraphs 
or  sentiments  deserve  a  remark,  which  are  new  and  un- 
common, are  noble  and  excellent  for  the  matter  of  them, 
are  strong  and  convincing  for  the  argument  contained 
in  tliem,  are  beautiful  and  elegant  for  the  language  or 
the  manner,  or  any  way  worthy  of  a  second  rehearsal; 
and  at  the  request  of  any  of  the  company  let  those  para- 
graphs be  read  over  again. 

Such  parts  also  of  these  writings  as  may  happen  to 
be  remarkably  stupid  or  silly,  false  or  mistaken,  should 
become  subjects  of  an  occasional  criticism,  made  by  some 
of  the  company;  and  this  may  give  occasion  to  the  repe- 
tition of  them,  for  the  confirmation  of  the  censure,  for 
amusement  or  diversion. 

Still  let  it  be  remembered,  that  where  the  historical 
narration  is  of  consideral)le  moment,  where  the  poesy, 
oratory,  &,c.  shine  with  some  degrees  of  perfection  and 
glory,  a  single  reading  is  neither  sufficient  to  satisfy  a 
mind  that  has  a  true  taste  of  tiiis  sort  of  writings;  nor 
can  we  make  the  fullest  and  best  im[)rovement  of  them 
without  proper  reviews,  and  tliat  in  our  retirement  as 
well  as  in  company.  Who  is  there  that  has  any  gout 
for  polite  writings  that  would  be  sufficiently  satisfied  with 
hearing  the  beautiful  pages  of  Steele  or  Addison,  the  ad- 
mirable descriptions  of  Virgil  or  Milton,  or  some  of  the 
finest  poems  of  Pope,  Young,  or  Dryden,  once  read  over 
to  them,  and  then  lay  them  lay  for  ever? 

XV.  Among  these  writitigs  of  tiie  lat'er  kind  we  may 
justly  reckon  short  miscellaneous  essays  on  all  manner 
of  rubjects;  such  as  the  Occasional  Papers,  the  Tatlers, 
the  Spectators,  and  some  other  books  that  have  been 
compiled  out  of  the  weekly  or  daily  products  of  the 
press,  wherein  are  contained  a  great  number  of  bright 
thouglits,  ingenious  remarks,  and  admirable  observations, 
which  have  had  a  considerable  share  in  furnishing  the 
present  age  witii  knowledge  and  politeness. 

I  wish  every  paper  among  these  writings  could  have 
been  recommended  both  as  innocent  and  usefa'.  I  wish 
every  unseemly  idea  and  wanton  expre^ion  had  bees 


48  OF  BOOKS  AND  READING. 

banished  from  amon,^st  them,  and  every  trifling  page 
had  been  excluded  from  the  company  oi'  the  rest  wlien 
they  had  been  bound  up  in  volumes:  but  it  is  not  to  be 
expected,  in  so  i/iiperfect  a  state,  that  every  page  or 
pi«ce  of  sucii  mixed  public  papers  should  be  entirely 
blameless  and  laudable.  Yet  in  the  main  it  must  be 
confessed,  tiiere  is  so  much  virtue,  prudence,  ingenuity, 
and  goodness  in  them,  especially  in  eight  vidumes  of 
Spectators,  tliere  is  such  a  reverence  for  things  sacred, 
so  many  valuable  remarks  for  our  conduct  in  life,  that 
they  are  not  improper  to  lie  in  parlours,  or  siunmer- 
houses,  or  places  of  usual  residence,  to  entertain  our 
thoughts  in  any  moments  of  leisure  or  vacant  iiours  that 
occur.  There  is  such  a  discovery  of  the  follies,  iniqui- 
ties, and  fashionable  vices  of  mankind  contained  in  them, 
that  we  may  learn  much  of  the  humours  and  madnesses 
of  the  age  and  the  public  world,  in  our  own  solitary 
retirement,  witliout  the  danger  of  frequenting  vicious 
company,  or  receiving  the  mortal  infection. 

XVI.  Among  other  books  which  are  proper  and  re- 
quisite, in  order  to  improve  our  knowledge  in  general, 
or  our  acquaintance  with  any  particular  science,  it  is 
necessary  that  we  should  be  furnislied  with  Vocabularies 
and  Dictionaries  of  several  sorts,  viz.  of  common  words, 
idioms  and  phrases,  in  order  to  explain  their  sense;  of 
technical  words  or  the  terms  of  art,  to  show  their  use  in 
arts  and  sciences;  of  names  of  men,  countries,  towns, 
rivers,  &c.  which  are  called  historical  and  geographical 
dictionaries,  &c.  Tliese  are  to  be  consulted  and  used  upon 
every  occasion;  and  never  let  an  unknown  word  f)ass  in 
your  readir)g  without  seeking  for  its  sense  and  meaning 
in  some  of  these  writers. 

If  such  books  are  not  at  hand,  you  must  supply  the 
want  of  them  as  well  .as  you  can,  by  consulting  such  as 
can  inform  you:  and  it  is  useful  to  note  down  the  matters 
of  doubt  and  inquiry  in  some  pocket-book,  and  take  the 
first  opportunity  to  get  tliem  resolved,  either  by  persons 
or  books,  when  we  meet  with  tliem. 

XVII.  Be  not  satisfied  with  a  mere  knowledtj-e  of  the 
best  authors  that  treat  of  any  subject,  instead  of  ac- 
quainting ourselves  tiioroughly  with  tiie  subject  itself. 


JUDGMENT  OF  BOOKS.  43 

There  is  many  a  young'  student  that  is  fond  of  enlarging 
his  knowledo-e  of  books,  and  he  contents  himself  with 
the  notice  he  has  of  their  title-page,  which  is  the  a'ttain- 
ment  of  a  bookseller  rather  than  a  scliolar.  Such  per- 
sons are  under  a  great  temptation  to  practise  these  two 
follies.  (1.)  To  heap  up  a  great  number  of  books  at  a 
greater  expense  than  most  of  them  can  bear,  and  to 
furnish  their  libraries  infinitely  better  than  their  under- 
standing. And  (2)  when  they  have  gotten  such  rich 
treasures  of  knowledge  upon  their  shelves,  they  imagine 
themselves  men  of  learning,  and  take  a  pride  in  talking 
of  tiie  names  of  famous  authors,  and  the  subjects  of 
which  they  treat,  without  any  real  improvement  of  their 
own  minds  in  true  science  or  wisdom.  At  best  their 
learning  reaches  no  further  tlian  the  indexes  and  table 
of  contents,  while  they  know  not  how  to  judge  or  reason 
concerning  the  matters  contained  in  those  authors. 

And  indeed  how  many  volumes  of  learning  soever  a 
man  possesses,  he  is  still  deplorabl}'  poor  in  his  under- 
standing, till  he  has  made  those  several  parts  of  learn- 
ing his  own  property  by  reading  and  reasoning,  by  judg- 
ing for  himself,  and  .-emembering  what  he  has  read. 


CHAPTER  V. 

JUDGMENT  OF  BOOKS. 

I.  If  we  would  form  a  judtrment  of  a  book  which  we 
have  not  seen  before,  the  first  thing  that  offers  is  the 
title-page,  and  we  may  sometimes  guess  a  little  at  the 
import  and  design  of  a  book  thereby;  though  it  must  be 
confessed  that  titles  are  often  deceitful,  and  promise 
more  than  the  Dook  performs.  The  author's  name,  if  it 
be  known  in  the  world,  may  help  us  to  conjecture  at 
the  performance  a  little  more,  and  lead  us  to  guess  in 
what  manner  it  is  done.  A  perusal  of  the  preface  or 
intrcjduction  (which  I  before  recommended)  mav  further 
assist  our  judgment;  and  if  there  be  an  index  of  the  con- 
tents, it  will  give  us  still  some  advancing  liglit. 

If  we  have  not  leisure  or  inclination  to  read  over  the 
5 


50  JUDGMENT  OF  BOOKS. 

book  itself  regularly,  then  by  the  titles  of  chapters  we 
may  be  directed  to  peruse  several  particular  chapters  or 
sections,  and  observe  whetiier  there  be  any  thing  valua- 
ble or  important  in  them.  We  shall  find  hereby  whether 
the  author  explains  his  ideas  clearly,  whether  he  reasons 
strongly,  whether  he  methodizes  well,  whether  his 
thought  and  sense  be  manly,  and  his  manner  polite;  or, 
on  the  other  hand,  whetiier  he  be  obscure,  weak,  trifling, 
and  confused;  or,  finally,  whether  the  matter  may  not 
be  solid  and  substantial,  though  the  style  and  manner  be 
rude  and  disagreeable. 

II.  By  having  run  through  several  chapters  and  sec- 
tions in  tliis  manner,  we  may  generally  judge  whether 
the  treatise  be  worth  a  complete  perusal  or  no.  But  if 
by  such  an  occasional  survey  of  some  chapters  our  ex- 
pectation be  utterly  discouraged,  we  may  well  lay  aside 
that  book;  for  there  is  great  probability  he  can  be  but 
an  indifferent  writer  on  that  subject,  if  he  affords  but 
one  prize  to  divers  blanks,  and  it  may  be  some  down- 
right blots  too.  The  piece  can  hardly  be  valuable  if  in 
seven  or  eigiit  chapters  wiiich  we  peruse  tiiere  be  but 
little  truth,  evidence,  force  of  reasoning,  beauty,  in- 
genuity of  thought,  &.C.  mingled  with  much  error, 
ignorance,  impertinence,  dulness,  mean  and  common 
tiioughls,  inaccuracy,  sopliistry,  railing,  &c.  Lile  is 
too  short,  and  time  is  too  precious,  to  read  every  new 
book  quite  over,  in  order  to  find  that  it  is  not  worth  tho 
reading. 

III.  There  are  some  general  mistakes  which  persons 
are  frequently  guilty  of  in  passing  a  judgment  on  the 
books  which  tliey  read. 

One  is  tiiis;  when  a  treatise  is  written  but  tolerably 
well,  we  are  ready  to  pass  a  favourable  judgment  of  it, 
and  sometimes  to  exalt  its  character  far  beyond  its 
merit,  if  it  agree  with  our  own  principles,  and  support 
the  opinions  of  our  party.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
aiithor  be  of  different  sentiments,  and  espouse  contrary 
principles,  we  can  find  neither  wit  nor  reason,  good 
sense,  nor  good  language  in  it;  whereas,  alas!  if  our 
opinions  of  tilings  were  certain  and  infallible  truth,  yet 
a  silly  author  may  draw  his  pen  in  the  defence  of  them, 


JUDGMENT    OF    BOOKS.  SI 

and  he  may  attack  even  gross  errors  with  feeble  and 
ridiculous  arguments.  Truth  in  this  world  is  not  al- 
ways attended  and  supported  by  the  wisest  and  safest 
metfiods;  and  error,  though  it  can  never  be  maintained 
by  just  reasoniivg,  yet  may  be  artt'ully  coveied  and  de- 
fended. An  increnious  writer  may  put  excellent  colours 
upon  his  own  mistakes.  Some  Socinians  who  deny  the 
Atonement  of  Christ,  have  written  well,  and  with  much 
appearance  of  argument  for  their  own  unscriptural  senti- 
ments; and  some  wi iters  for  the  Trinity  and  Satisfaction 
of  Christ,  have  exposed  themselves  and  the  sacred  doc- 
trine by  their  feeble  and  foolish  manner  of  liandling  it. 
Books  are  never  to  be  judged  of  merely  by  their  subject, 
or  ihe  opinion  they  represent,  but  by  the  justness  of  their 
sentiment,  the  beauty  of  their  maimer,  the  force  of  their 
expression,  or  tiie  strength  of  reason,  and  the  weiglit  of 
just  and  proper  argument  wliich  appears  in  theui. 

But  this  folly  and  weakness  of  trifling,  instead  of 
arguing,  does  not  happen  to  fall  oi.ly  to  the  sliare  of 
Christian  writers;  there  are  some  who  have  taken  the 
pen  in  hand  to  support  the  Deistical  or  Antichristian 
scheme  of  our  days,  who  make  big  pretences  to  reason 
upon  all  occasions,  but  seem  to  iiave  left  it  all  beliind 
them  when  they  arc  jesting  with  the  Bible,  and  grinning 
at  the  books  wliich  we  call  sacred. 

Some  of  these  performances  would  scarce  have  been 
thought  tolerable,  if  they  had  not  assaulted  the  Chris- 
tian faith,  though  they  have  now  grown  up  to  a  place 
amongst  the  admired  pens.  I  much  question  whether 
several  of  the  rhapsodies  called  the  Characteristics, 
would  ever  have  survived  the  first  edition,  if  they  had 
not  discovered  so  strong  a  tincture  of  infidelity,  and  now 
and  then  cast  out  a  profane  sneer  at  our  imly  religion. 
I  have  sometimes  indeed  been  ready  to  wonder  how  a 
book,  in  the  main  so  loosely  written,  sliould  ever  ob- 
tain so  many  readers  among  men  of  sense.  Surely 
they  must  be  conscious  in  the  perusal,  that  sometimes  a 
patrician  may  write  as  idly  as  a  man  of  plebeian  rank, 
and  trifle  as  much  as  an  old  school-man,  though  it  is  in 
another  form.  1  am  forced  to  say,  there  are  tew  books 
that  ever  1  read,  which  made  any  pretences  to  a  great 


52  JUDGMENT  OF  BOOKS. 

genius,  from  which  I  derived  so  little  valuable  know- 
ledge as  from  these  treatises.  Tliere  is  indeed  amongst 
them  a  lively  pertness,  a  parade  of  literature,  and  much 
of  what  some  folks  nowadays  call  politeness;  but  it  is 
hard  that  we  should  be  bound  to  admire  all  the  reveries 
of  this  author  under  the  penalty  of  being  unfashionable. 

IV.  Another  mistake  which  some  persons  fall  into  is 
this:  when  they  read  a  treatise  on  a  subject  with  which 
they  have  but  Ii-ttle  acquaintance,  they  find  almost  every 
thing  new  and  strange  to  them:  their  understandings  are 
greatly  entertained  and  improved  by  the  occurrence  of 
many  things  which  were  unknown  to  them  before;  they 
admire  the  treatise,  and  commend  the  author  at  once; 
whereas  if  they  had  but  attained  a  good  degree  of  skill 
in  that  science,  perhaps  they  would  find  that  the  author 
had  written  very  poorly,  that  neither  his  sense  nor  his 
method  was  just  and  proper,  and  that  he  had  nothing 
in  him  but  what  was  very  common  or  trivial  in  his  dis- 
co'irses  on  that  subject. 

Hence  it  comes  to  pass  that  Cario  and  Faber,  who 
were  both  bred  up  to  labour,  and  unacquamted  with  the 
sciences,  shall  admire  one  of  the  weekly  papers,  or  a 
little  pamphlet  that  talks  pertly  on  some  critical  or 
learned  theme,  because  the  matter  is  all  strange  and  new 
to  them,  and  they  join  to  extol  the  writer  to  the  skies;  and 
for  the  same  reason  a  young  academic  shall  dwell  upon 
a  Journal  or  an  Observator  that  treats  of  trade  and 
politics  in  a  dictatorial  style,  and  shall  be  lavish  in  tl>e 
praise  of  the  author:  while  at  the  same  time  persons  well 
skilled  in  those  different  subjects,  hear  the  impertinent 
tattle  with  a  just  contempt:  for  tliey  know  how  weak 
and  awkward  many  of  those  little  diminutive  discourses 
are;  and  that  those  very  papers  of  science,  politics,  or 
trade,  which  were  so  much  admired  by  the  ignorant,  are 
perhaps  but  very  mean  performances;  though  it  must 
also  be  confessed  there  are  some  excellent  essays  in  those 
papers,  and  uiat  upon  science  as  well  as  trade. 

V.  But  there  is  a  danger  of  mistake  in  our  judgment 
of  books,  on  the  other  band  also:  for  wlien  we  have 
made  ourselves  masters  of  any  particular  theme  of  know- 
ledge, and  surveyed  it  long  on  all  sides,  there  is  perhaps 


JUDGMENT  OF  BOOKS.  53 

scarce  any  writer  on  that  subject  who  muc]i  entertains 
and  pleases  us  afterwards,  because  we  find  httle  or  no- 
thing- new  in  him;  and  3'et,  in  a  true  judgment,  perhaps 
his  sentiments  are  most  proper  and  just,  his  explication 
clear,  and  his  reasoninor  stronof,  and  all  the  parts  of  the 
disconrse  are  well  connected  and  set  in  a  happy  litjht; 
but  we  knew  most  of  those  things  before,  and  therefore 
they  strike  us  not,  and  we  are  in  danger  of  discommend- 
ing them. 

Tiius  the  lenrned  and  the  unlearned  have  their  several 
distinct  dangers  and  prejudices  ready  to  attend  them  in 
their  judgment  of  the  writings  of  men.  These  which  I 
have  me?itioned  are  a  specimen  of  them,  and  indeed  but 
a  mere  specimen;  for  the  prejudices  that  warp  our  judg- 
ment aside  from  truth  are  almost  infinite  and  endless. 

VI.  Yet  I  cannot  forbear  to  point  out  two  or  tliree 
more  of  these  fillies,  tliat  I  may  attempt  something  to- 
wards t!ie  correctioti  of  them,  or  at  least  to  guard  others 
against  them. 

There  are  some  persons  ofa  forward  and  lively  temper, 
and  who  are  fond  lo  intermeddle  with  all  appearances 
of  knowledge,  will  give  their  judgment  on  a  book  as 
soon  as  the  title  of  it  is  mentioned,  for  they  would  not 
willingly  seem  ignorant  of  any  thing  that  others  know. 
And  especially  if  they  hap[)en  to  have  any  su[)erior 
character  or  possessions  of  this  world,  they  fanc}'  they 
have  a  right  to  talk  freely  upon  every  thing  that  stirs 
or  ai)f)ears,  tliough  tliev  have  no  other  pretence  to  this 
freedom.  Divito  is  worth  forty  thousand  pounds.  F^oli- 
tulus  is  a  fine  )'oung  gentleman,  who  sparkles  in  all  the 
shinincf  things  of  diess  and  equipage.  Aulinus  is  a 
small  attendant  on  a  minister  of  state,  and  is  at  court 
almost  every  day.  These  three  happened  to  meet  on  a 
visit  where  an  excellent  book  <»f  warm  and  refined  de- 
votions lay  in  the  window.  What  dull  stuff  is  here! 
said  Divito;  I  never  read  so  much  nonsense  in  one  page 
in  my  life;  nor  would  I  give  a  shilling  for  a  thousand 
such  treatises.  Aulinus,  thousrh  a  courtier,  had  not 
used  to  sueak  roualily,  yet  would  not  allow  tiiere  was  a 
line  of  good  sense  in  the  book,  and  pronounced  him  a 
madman  that  wrote  it  in  his  secret  retirement,  and  de- 
5^ 


64  JUDGMENT  OF  BOOKS. 

clarod  him  a  fool  that  published  it  after  his  death.  Poli- 
tulus  had  more  manners  than  to  dilier  from  men  of  such 
rank  and  character,  and  tlierefore  he  sneered  at  the  de- 
vout expressions  as  he  lieard  tiiem  read,  and  made  the 
divine  treatise  a  matter  of  scorn  and  ridicule;  and  yet  it 
was  well  known,  that  neither  this  fine  gentleman,  nor 
the  courtier,  nor  tlie  man  of  wealth,  had  a  grain  of  de- 
votion in  tliem  beyond  their  horses  that  waited  at  the 
door  with  their  gilded  chariots.  But  tliis  is  the  way  of 
the  world;  blind  men  will  talk  of  the  beauty  of  colours, 
and  of  the  harmony  or  disproportion  of  fitfures  in  paint- 
ing; the  deaf  will  prate  of  discords  in  music;  and  those 
wiio  have  nothing  to  do  vvitii  religion  will  arraign  tiie 
best  treatise  on  divine  subjects,  though  they  do  not  un- 
derstand the  very  language  of  the  scripture,  nor  tlie  com- 
mon terms  or  phrases  used  in  Christianity. 

VII.  1  might  here  name  another  sort  of  judges,  who 
will  set  theuisflves  up  to  decide  in  favour  of  an  author, 
or  will  pronounce  him  a  mere  blunderer,  according  to 
the  company  tiiey  have  kept,  and  the  judgment  they 
liave  heard  passed  upon  a  JDOok  by  others  of  their  own 
tilamp  or  size,  though  they  have  no  knowledge  or  taste 
of  the  subject  themselves.  These,  with  a  fluent  and 
voluble  tongue,  become  mere  echoes  of  tlie  praises  or 
censures  of  other  men.  Sonillus  happened  to  be  in  the 
room  where  the  three  gentlemen  just  mentioned  gave 
out  their  thoughts  so  freely  upon  an  admirable  book  of 
devotion:  and  two  days  afterwards  he  met  with  some 
friends  of  his,  where  this  book  was  the  subject  of  con- 
versation and  praise.  Sonillus  wondered  at  their  dul- 
ness,  and  repeated  the  jests  which  he  had  heard  cast 
upon  the  weakness  of  the  author.  His  knowledge  of 
the  book,  and  his  decision  upon  it,  was  all  from  hearsay, 
for  he  had  never  seen  it;  and^f  he  had  read  it  through, 
he  had  no  manner  of  right  to  judge  about  the  things  of 
religion,  having  no  more  knowledge  or  taste  of  any 
thing  of  inward  piety  than  a  hedgehog  or  a  bear  has  of 
politeness. 

When  I  bad  written  these  remarks,  Probus,  who 
knew  all  the  four  gentlemen,  wished  they  might  have 
an  opportunity  to  re«ul  their  own  ciiaracter  as  it  is  repre- 


JUDGMENT    OF    BOOKS.  55 

Bented  here.  Alas!  Probus,  I  fear  it  would  do  them 
very  little  good,  though  it  may  guard  others  against 
their  folly:  for  there  is  never  a  one  of  them  would  find 
their  own  name  in  these  characters  if  tliey  read  them; 
though  all  tlieir  acquaintance  would  acknowledge  the 
features  immediately,  and  see  the  persons  almost  alive 
in  the  picture. 

VI 11.  There  is  yet  another  mischievous  principle 
whicli  prevails  among  some  persons  in  passing  a  judg- 
ment on  the  writings  of  others,  and  tliat  is,  when  from 
the  secret  stimulations  of  vanity,  pride,  or  envy,  they  de- 
spise a  valuable  book,  and  throw  contempt  upon  it  by 
wholesale:  and  if  you  ask  them  the  reason  of  their  severe 
censure,  they  will  tell  you,  perhaps,  they  have  found  a 
mistake  or  two  in  it,  or  there  are  a  {"ew  sentiments 
or  expressions  not  suited  to  their  tooth  and  humour. 
Bavius  cries  down  an  admirable  treatise  of  philosophy, 
and  says  there  is  atheism  in  it,  because  there  are  a  few 
sentences  that  seem  to  suppose  brutes  to  be  n)ere  ma- 
chines. Under  tlie  same  intiuence,  Momus  will  not  al- 
low Paradise  Lost  to  be  a  good  poem,  because  he  lias 
read  some  flat  and  heavy  lines  in  it;  and  he  thought  Milton 
had  too  much  honour  done  him.  It  is  a  paltry  humour 
that  inclines  a  man  to  rail  at  any  human  performance, 
because  it  is  not  absolutely  perfect.  Horace  would  give 
us  a  better  example: — 

Sunt  delicta  tameii  quibus  ignovisse  velimus, 

IVain  iif(jue  cliorda  sotiuin  rtddit  quemvult  manus  et  mens, 

IVec  semper  leriet  qundcunque  iniiiabilur  arcus: 

V{  rum  ubi  plura  iiiteiit  in  carmine,  iioii  ego  paucis 

Offendar  macuiis,  quas  aiil  incuria  fudit, 

Aul  humaiia  parum  cavil  natura. 

Hor.  de  Art.  Poel. 
Thus  Englished: — 

Be  not  two  rigi<l]y  censorious: 

A  string  may  jar  in  the  best  master's  hand, 

And  ilie  most  sUilful  archer  miss  his  aim: 

So  in  a  poem  elegantly  writ, 

1  will  not  quarrel  with  a  small  mistake, 

Such  as  our  nature's  frailly  may  excuse. 

Roscormnon. 

This  noble  translator  of  Horace,  whom  I  here  cite, 
has  a  very  honourable  opinion  of  Homer  in  the  niamj 


56  JUDGMENT  OF  BOOKS. 

J'et  he  allows  him  to  be  justly  censured  for  some  grosser 
spots  and  blemishes  in  him: — 

For  who  without  aversion  ever  looked 
On  holy  garbage,  though  by  Homer  cooked; 
Whose  railing  heroes,  and  whose  wounded  gods, 
Make  some  suspect  he  snores  as  well  as  nods. 

Such  wise  and  just  distinctions  ou^ht  to  be  made 
when  we  pass  a  judgment  on  mortal  things;  but  Envy 
condemns  by  wholesale.  Envy  is  a  cursed  plant;  some 
fibres  of  it  are  rooted  almost  in  every  man's  nature,  and 
it  works  in  a  sly  and  imperceptible  manner,  and  that 
even  in  some  persons  who  in  the  main  are  men  of  wis- 
dom and  piety.  They  know  not  how  to  bear  the  praises 
that  are  given  to  an  ingenious  author,  especially  if  he 
be  living,  and  of  their  profession;  and  therefore  they  will, 
if  possible,  find  some  blemish  in  his  writings,  that  they 
may  nibble  and  bark  at  it.  Tliey  will  endeavour  to 
diminish  the  honour  of  the  best  treatise  that  has  been 
written  on  any  subject,  and  to  render  it  useless  by  their 
censures,  rather  than  suffer  their  envy  to  lie  asleep,  and 
the  little  mistakes  of  that  author  to  pass  unexposed. 
Perhaps  they  will  commend  the  work  in  gencial  with  a 
pretended  air  of  candour;  but  pass  so  many  sly  and  in- 
vidious remarks  upon  it  afterwacds,  as  shall  elfectually 
destroy  all  their  cold  and  formal  praises.* 

IX.  When  a  person  feels  any  tiling  of  this  invidious 
humour  working  in  him,  he  may  by  the  following  con- 
sideration attempt  the  correction  of  it.  Let  iiiin  think 
with  himself  how  many  are  the  beauties  of  such  an 
author  whom  he  censures,  in  comparison  of  his  blem- 
ishes, and  remember  that  it  is  a  much  more  honourable 
and  good-natured  thing  to  find  out  peculiar  beauties 
than  faults;  true  and  undisguised  candour  is  a  much 
more  amiable  and  divine  talent  than  accusation.     Let 

"  I  grant  when  Wisdonm  itself  censures  a  weak  and  foolish  perfor- 
mance, it  will  pass  its  severe  sentence,  and  yet  with  an  air  of  candour, 
if  the  author  has  any  thing  valuable  in  him:  but  Envy  will  sometimes 
imitate  the  same  favourable  airs,  in  order  to  make  its  false  cavils 
appear  more  just  and  credible,  when  it  has  a  mind  to  snarl  at  sonie 
of  the  brightest  performances  of  a  human  writer. 


IUDGME>fT   OF    BOOKS.  57 

him  reflect  a^ain,  what  an  easy  matter  it  is  to  find  a 
mistake  in  all  liuman  authors,  who  are  necessarily  fal- 
lible and  imperfect. 

I  confess,  where  an  author  sets  up  himself  to  ridicule 
divine  writerp,  and  things  sacred,  and  yet  assumes  an  air 
of  sovereignty  and  dictatorship,  to  exalt  and  ahnost  deify 
all  tl>e  pagan  ancients,  and  cast  his  scorn  upon  all  the 
moderns,  especially  if  they  do  but  savour  of  miracles  and 
the  gospel;  it  is  fit  the  admirers  of  this  author  should 
know,  that  nature  and  these  ancients  are  not  the  same, 
though  some  writers  always  unite  them.  Reason  and 
nature  never  made  these  ancient  heathens  their  standard, 
either  of  art  or  genius,  of  writing  or  heroism.  Sir 
Richard  Steele,  in  his  little  essay,  called  the  Christian 
Hero,  has  shown  our  Saviour  and  St.  Paul  in  a  more 
glorious  and  transcendent  light  than  a  Virgil  or  Homer 
could  do  for  tlieir  Achilles,  Ulysses,  or  ^^neas:  and  I  am 
persuaded,  if  Moses  and  David  liad  not  been  inspired 
writers,  these  very  men  would  have  ranked  them  at 
least  with  Herodotus  and  Horace,  if  laot  given  them  the 
superior  place. 

But  where  an  author  has  many  beauties  consistent 
with  virtue,  piety,  and  truth,  let  not  little  critics  exalt 
themselves,  and  shower  down  their  ill  nature  upon  him 
without  bounds  or  measure;  but  rather  stretch  tlieir  own 
powers  of  soul  till  they  write  a  treatise  superior  to  that 
which  they  condeum.  This  is  the  noblest  and  surest 
manner  of  suppressing  what  they  censure. 

A  little  wit,  or  a  litlle  learning,  with  a  good  degree 
of  vanity  and  ill, nature,  will  teach  a  man  to  pour  out 
whole  pages  of  remark  and  repruacli  upon  one  real  or 
fancied  mistake  of  a  great  and  good  author:  and  this 
may  be  dressed  up  by  the  same  talents,  and  made  enter- 
taining enough  to  the  world,  which  loves  reproach  and 
scandal:  but  if  the  remarker  would  but  once  make  this 
attempt,  and  try  to  outshine  the  author  by  writing  a 
better  book  on  the  same  subject,  he  would  soon  be  con- 
vinced of  his  own  insufficiency,  and  perhaps  might  learn 
to  judge  more  justly  and  favourably  of  the  performance 
of  other  men.  A  cobbler  or  a  shoemaker  may  find  some 
httle  fault  with  the  latchet  of  a  shoe  that  an  Apellea 


58  JUDGMENT    OF   BOOKS. 

had  painted,  and  perhaps  with  justice  too,  when  the 
whole  figure  and  portraiture  is  such  as  none  but  Apelles 
could  paint.  Every  poor  low  genius  may  cavil  at  wliat 
the  lichest  and  the  noblest  hath  performed;  but  it  is  a 
sign  of  envy  and  malice,  added  to  the  littleness  and 
poverty  of  genius,  when  such  a  cavil  becomes  a  sufficient 
reason  to  pronounce  at  once  against  a  bright  author, 
and  a  whole  valuable  treatise. 

X.  Another,  and  that  a  very  frequent  fault,  in  passing 
a  judgment  upon  books,  is  this,  that  persons  spread  the 
same  praises  or  the  same  reproaches  over  a  whole  trea- 
tise, and  all  tlie  chapters  in  it,  which  are  due  only  to 
some  of  them.  Tiiey  judge  as  it  were  by  wholesale, 
without  making  a  due  distinction  between  the  several 
parts  or  sections  of  the  performance;  and  this  is  ready 
to  lead  those  who  hear  them  talk  into  a  dangerous  mis- 
take. Florus  is  a  great  and  just  admirer  of  the  late 
Archbishop  of  Cambray,  and  mightily  commends  every 
thing  he  has  written,  and  will  allow  no  blemish  in  him; 
whereas  the  writings  of  that  excellent  man  are  not  all 
of  a  piece;  nor  are  those  very  books  of  his,  vvliicli  have 
a  good  number  of  beautiful  and  valuable  sentiments  in 
them,  to  be  recommended  throughout,  or  all  at  once 
without  distinction.  Tiiere  is  his  demonstration  of  the 
Existence  and  Attributes  of  God,  which  has  justly  gained 
a  universal  esteem,  for  bringing  down  souie  new  and 
noble  thouglits  of  the  wisdom  of  the  creation  to  the  un- 
derstanding of  the  unlearned,  and  they  are  such  as  well 
deserve  the  perusal  of  the  man  of  science,  perhaps  as 
far  as  the  30th  section;  but  there  are  many  of  tlie  follow- 
ing sections  which  are  very  weakly  written,  and  some  of 
them  built  upon  an  enthusiastical  and  mistaken  sclieme, 
akin  to  tlie  peculiar  opmions  of  Father  Malebranche;  such 
as  sect  51,  53,  "That  we  know  the  finite  only  by  the  ideas 
of  the  infinite."  Sect.  55,  60,  "That  the  superior  rea- 
son in  man  is  God  iiirnself  acting  in  him."  Sect.  61, 
62,  "Tliat  tile  idea  of  unity  cannot  be  taken  from  crea- 
tures, but  from  God  only:"  and  several  of  his  sections, 
from  65  to  68,  upon  the  doctrine  of  liberty,  seem  to  be 
inconsistent.  Again,  toward  tiie  end  of  iiis  book,  he 
Bpends  more  time  and  pains  than  are  needful  in  refuting 


jrrPGMEXT  OF  BOOKS.  59 

the  Epicurian  fancy  of  atoms  moving  eternally  through 
infinite  changes,  which  miglit  be  done  etiectually  in  a 
much  shorter  and  better  way. 

So  in  his  postliuuions  essays,  and  his  letters,  there  are 
many  admirable  thoughts  in  practical  and  experimental 
reliuion,  and  very  beautiful  and  divine  sentiments  in 
devotion;  but  sometimes  in  large  paragra|)lis,  or  in  whohj 
chapters  tuofetiier,  you  find  him  in  the  clouds  of  mystic 
divinity,  and  he  never  descends  within  the  reach  of 
comn)on  ideas  or  common  sense. 

But  remember  this  also,  that  there  are  but  few  such 
au'hors  as  this  great  man,  who  talks  &i  very  weakly 
sometimes,  and  yet  in  otiier  places  is  so  much  superior 
to  the  greatest  part  of  writers. 

Tiiere  are  otiier  instances  of  this  kind,  where  men  of 
good  sense  in  the  main  set  up  forjudges,  but  ihey  carry 
too  many  of  their  passions  about  tiiem,  and  tiien,  like 
lovers,  tiiey  are  in  rapture  at  the  name  of  tiieir  fair  idol: 
Ihey  lavisii  out  all  iheir  incense  upon  tiiat  slirine,  and 
cannot  bear  tiie  thouglit  of  admitting  a  blemish  in  them. 

You  siiall  iiear  Altisono  not  only  admire  Casimire  of 
Poland  in  his  lyrics,  as  tlie  utmost  purity  and  perfection 
of  Latin  poesy;  but  he  will  allow  nothing  in  him  to  be 
extravagant  or  taulty.  and  will  vindicate  every  line:  nor 
can  1  inucli  wonder  at  it,  when  1  have  heard  him  pro- 
nounce Lucan  the  best  of  the  ancient  Latins,  and  idolize 
his  very  weaknesses  and  mistakes.  1  will  readily  ac- 
knowledge tlie  Odes  of  Casimire  to  have  more  spirit  and 
force,  more  magnificence  and  fire  in  them,  and  in  twenty 
places  arise  to  more  dignity  and  beauty  than  I  could 
ever  meet  with  in  any  of  our  modern  poets:  yet  I  am 
afraid  to  say  that  "  Palla  sutilis  e  luce"  has  dignity 
enough  in  it  for  a  robe  made  for  the  Almighty:  Lib.  iv. 
Od.  7,  1,  37,  or  tiiat  the  man  of  virtue  in  Od.  3,  1.  44, 
"  under  the  ruins  of  heaven  and  earth,  will  bear  up  the 
fragments  of  the  falling  world  with  a  comely  wound  on 
his  shoulders." 

Late  ruenti 

Subjiciens  sua  colla  caelo 
Muiidum  dtcuro  viilnere  fulcie; 
Interque  caeli  fragmina. 


60  JUDGMENT    OF    BOOKS. 

Yet  I  must  needs  confess  also,  that  it  is  hardly  possi- 
ble a  man  should  rise  to  so  exalted  and  sublime  a  vein 
of  poesy  as  Casimire,  who  is  not  in  danger  now  and 
then  of  such  extravagances;  but  still  they  should  not  be 
admired  or  defended,  if  we  pretend  to  pass  a  just  judg- 
ment on  the  writings  of  the  greatest  men. 

Milton  is  a  noble  genius,  and  the  world  agrees  to  con- 
fess it:  his  poem  of  Paradise  Lost  is  a  glorious  perfor- 
mance, and  rivals  the  most  famous  pieces  of  antiquity; 
but  that  reader  must  be  deeply  prejudiced  in  favour  of 
the  poet,  who  can  imagine  him  equal  to  himself  through 
all  that  work.  Neither  the  sublime  sentiments,  nor 
dignity  of  numbers,  nor  force  or  beauty  of  expression, 
are  equally  maintained,  even  in  all  those  parts  which 
requn-e  grandeur  or  beauty,  force  or  harmony.  I  can- 
not bi]t  consent  to  Mr.  Diyden's  opinion,  though  I  will 
not  use  his  words,  that  for  some  scores  of  lines  together 
there  is  a  coldness  and  flatness,  and  almost  a  perfect 
absence  of  tliat  spirit  of  poesy  which  breathes,  and  lives, 
and  flames  in  other  pages. 

XI.  When  you  hear  any  person  pretending  to  give 
his  judgment  of  a  book,  consider  with  yourself  whether 
he  be  a  capable  judge,  or  whether  he  may  not  lie  under 
some  unhappy  bias  or  prejudice,  for  or  against  it,  or 
whether  he  has  made  a  sufficient  inquiry  to  form  his 
justest  sentiments  upon  it. 

Though  he  be  a  man  of  good  sense,  yet  he  is  incapa- 
ble of  passing  a  true  judgment  of  a  particular  book,  if 
he  be  not  well  acquainted  with  the  subject  of  which  it 
treats,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  written,  be  it  verse 
or  prose:  or  if  he  hath  not  had  an  opportunity  or  leisure 
to  look  sufficiently  into  the  writing  itself. 

Again,  though  he  be  ever  so  capable  of  judging  on 
all  other  accounts,  by  the  knowledge  of  tlie  subject, 
and  of  the  book  itself,  yet  you  are  to  consider  also 
whether  there  be  any  tiling  in  the  author,  in  his  man- 
ner, in  his  language,  in  his  opinions,  and  his  particular 
party,  which  may  warp  the  sentiments  of  him  tiiat  judg- 
eth,  to  think  well  or  ill  of  the  treatise,  and  to  pass  too 
favourable  or  too  severe  a  sentence  concerning  it. 

If  you  find  that  he  is  either  an  unfit  judge  because  of 


I 


JUDGMENT    OF    BOftKS.  61 

his  ignorance  or  because  of  his  prejudices,  his  judcrrnent 
of  that  bock  should  go  for  notliiiig.  Piiilographo  is  a 
good  divine,  a  useful  preacher,  and  an  approved  exposi- 
tor of  scripture;  but  lie  never  had  a  taste  for  any  of  the 
polite  learning  of  the  age;  he  was  fond  of  every  thing 
that  appeared  in  a  devout  dress;  but  all  verse  was  alike 
to  him:  he  told  me  last  week  there  was  a  very  fine  book 
of  poems  published  on  the  three  Christian  Graces,  Faith, 
Hope,  and  ("iiarity;  and  a  most  elegant  piece  of  oratory 
on  the  four  last  things.  Death,  Judgment,  Heaven, 
and  Hell.  Do  you  think  I  sliall  buy  either  of  those 
books  merely  on  Philographo's  recommendation? 


CHAPTER  VI. 

OF  LIVING  INSTRUCTIONS  AND  LECTURES,  OF  TEACHERS 
AND  LEARNERS. 

I.  There  are  few  persons  of  so  penetrating  a  genius, 
and  so  just  a  judgment,  as  to  be  capable  of  learning  the 
arts  and  sciences  without  the  assistance  of  teachera. 
There  is  scarce  any  science  so  safely  and  so  speedily 
learned,  even  by  the  noblest  genius  and  the  best  books, 
without  a  tutor.  His  assistance  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  most  persons,  and  it  is  very  useful  for  all  beginners. 
Books  are  a  sort  of  dumb  teachers;  they  point  out  the 
way  to  learning;  but  if  we  labour  under  any  doubt  or 
mistake,  they  cannot  answer  sudden  questions,  or  explain 
present  doubts  and  difficulties:  this  is  properly  the  work 
of  a  living  instructor. 

n.  There  are  very  few  tutors  who  are  sufficiently 
furnished  with  such  universal  learning,  as  to  sustain  all 
the  parts  and  provinces  of  instruction.  The  sciences  are 
numerous,  and  many  of  them  lie  far  wide  of  eacli  other; 
and  it  is  best  to  enjoy  the  instructions  of  two  or  three 
tutors  at  least,  in  order  to  run  through  the  whole  ency- 
clo[)a3dia,  or  circle  of  sciences,  where  it  may  be  obtained; 
then  we  may  expect  that  each  will  teach  the  few  parts 
of  learning  which  are  committed  to  his  care  in  greater 
6 


62  OF    LIVING    INSTKUCTIOVS 

perfection.  But  where  this  advantage  cannot  be  had 
with  convenience,  one  great  man  must  supply  the  place 
of  two  or  three  common  instructors. 

III.  It  is  not  sutlicient  lliat  instructors  be  competently 
skilful  in  those  sciences  wiiich  tliey  profess  and  teach;  but 
they  should  liave  skill  also  in  the  art  or  method  of 
teacliing,  and  patience  in  tiie  practice  of  it. 

It  is  a  great  unhappiness  indeed,  when  persons  by  a 
spirit  of  party,  or  faction,  or  interest,  or  by  purchase, 
are  set  up  for  tutors,  who  have  neither  due  knowledge 
of  science,  nor  skill  in  the  way  of  communication.  And, 
alas!  there  are  others  who,  with  all  their  ignorance 
and  insutHciency,  have  self  admiration  and  elFroiitery 
enough  to  set  up  tlieinselves;  and  the  poor  pupils  fare 
accordingly,  and  grow  lean  in  their  understandings. 

And  let  it  be  observed  also,  theie  are  some  very 
learned  men,  who  know  much  themselves,  but  have  not 
the  talent  of  communicating  their  own  knowledge;  or 
else  they  are  lazy,  and  will  take  no  pains  at  it.  I^ither 
they  have  an  obscure  and  perplexed  way  of  talking,  or 
they  show  their  learning  uselessly,  and  make  a  long 
periphrasis  on  every  word  of  the  book  they  explain,  or 
they  cannot  condescend  to  young  beginners,  or  they  run 
presently  into  the  elevated  parts  of  the  science,  because 
it  gives  themselves  greater  pleasure,  or  they  are  soon 
angry  and  im()atient,  and  cannot  bear  vvitii  a  few  im- 
pertinent cpiestions  of  a  young  inquisitive  and  sprightly 
genius;  or  else  they  skim  over  a  science  in  a  very  slight 
and  superficial  survey,  and  never  lead  their  disciples 
into  the  depths  of  it. 

IV.  A  good  tutor  should  have  characters  and  qualifi- 
cations very  dirterent  from  all  these.  He  is  such  a  one 
as  both  can  and  will  apply  himself  with  diligence  and 
concern,  and  indefatigable  patience,  to  eHect  what  he 
undertakes;  to  teach  his  disciples,  and  see  that  they 
learn;  to  adapt  his  way  and  method,  as  near  as  niay  be, 
to  the  various  dispositions,  as  well  as  to  the  capacities 
of  those  vvliom  he  instructs,  and  to  inquii'e  often  into 
their  progress  and  improvement. 

And  he  should  take  paiticular  care  of  his  Ovvn  tem- 
per and  conduct,  that  there  be  nothing  in  hirn  or  about 


BY  TEACHERS.  63 

him  wliich  may  be  of  ill  example;  nothing  that  may 
savour  of  a  haughty  temper,  or  a  mean  and  sordid  spirit; 
nothing'  tliat  may  expose  him  to  the  aversion  or  to  the 
contempt  of  his  scholars,  or  create  a  prejudice  in  their 
minds  against  him  and  his  instrnctions:  but,  if  possible, 
he  should  have  so  much  of  a  natural  candour  and  sweet- 
ness mixed  with  all  tlie  improvements  of  learriiiiir,  as 
might  convey  knowledge  into  the  minds  of  iiis  disciples 
with  a  sort  of  gentle  insinuation  and  sovereign  dchglit, 
and  may  tempt  them  into  the  highest  improvements  of 
their  reason  by  a  resistless  and  insensible  force.  But  I 
shall  have  occasion  to  say  more  on  this  subject,  wlien  I 
come  to  speak  more  directly  of  tiie  methods  of  the  com- 
munication of  knowledge. 

V.  The  learner  sliould  attend  with  constancy  and  care 
on  all  the  instructions  of  his  tutor;  and  if  he  happens  to 
be  at  any  time  unavoidably  iiindered,  he  must  endeavour 
to  retrieve  the  loss  by  double  industry  for  time  to  come. 
He  should  always  recollect  and  review  his  lectures, 
read  over  some  other  author  or  authors  upon  t!ie  same 
subject,  confer  upon  it  with  his  instructor,  or  with  his 
associates,  and  v/rite  down  the  clearest  result  of  his 
present  thoughts,  reasonings,  and  in(juiries,  which  he 
may  have  recourse  to  hereafter,  either  to  re-examine 
them  and  to  apply  tliem  to  projier  use,  or  to  improve 
them  farther  to  his  own  advantage. 

VI.  A  student  should  never  satisfy  himself  with  bare 
attendance  on  tlie  lectures  of  his  tutor,  unless  he  clearly 
takes  up  his  sense  and  meaning,  and  undeistands  the 
things  which  he  teaches.  A  young  disciple  should  be- 
have himself  so  well  as  to  gain  the  affection  and  ear  of 
his  instructor,  that  upon  every  occasion  he  may,  with 
the  utmost  freedom,  ask  questions,  and  talk  over  his 
own  sentiments,  his  doubts,  and  difficulties  with  him, 
and  m  an  humble  and  modest  manner  desire  the  solution 
of  them. 

VII.  Let  the  learner  endeavour  to  maintain  an  hono- 
rable opinion  of  his  instructor,  and  heedfully  listen  to 
his  instructions,  as  one  willing  to  be  led  by  a  more  ex- 
perienced guide;  and  though  he  is  not  bound  to  fall  in 

I   with  every  sentiment  of  his  tutor,  yet  he  should  so  far 


64  OF    LIVING    IKSTRUCTIONS,  &C. 

comply  with  him  as  to  resolve  upon  a  just  consideration 
of  llie  matter,  and  try  and  examine  it  thorouglilv  with 
an  honest  lieart,  before  lie  presume  to  determine  against 
him:  and  then  it  shuuld  be  done  with  great  modesty, 
with  an  humble  jealousy  of  himself,  and  apparent  un- 
willingness to  dirter  from  his  tutor,  if  the  force  of  argu- 
ment and  truth  did  not  constrain  him. 

VIII.  It  is  a  frequent  and  growing  folly  in  our  age, 
that  pert  yoimg  disciples  soon  fancy  tliemselves  wiser 
than  those  who  teacli  tliem:  at  the  hist  view,  or  upon  a 
very  little  thought,  they  can  discern  the  insignificancy, 
weakness,  and  mistake  of  what  their  teacher  asserts. 
The  youth  of  our  day,  by  an  early  petulancy,  and  pre- 
tended liberty  of  thinking  for  themselves,  dare  reject  at 
once,  and  that  with  a  sort  of  scorn,  all  those  sentiments 
and  doctrines  which  tiieir  teachers  have  determined, 
perhaps,  after  long  and  repeated  consideration,  after 
years  of  mature  study,  careful  observation,  and  much 

(^jtrudent  experience. 

IX.  It  is  true  teachers  and  masters  are  not  infallible, 
nor  are  they  always  in  the  right;  and  it  must  be  ac- 
knowledged, it  is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty  fur  younger 
minds  to  maintain  a  just  and  solemn  veneration  for  the 
authority  and  advice  of  their  parents  and  tlie  instruc- 
tions of  their  tutors,  and  yet  at  the  same  time  to  secure 
to  tiiemselves  a  just  freedom  in  their  own  thouglits. 
We  are  sometimes  too  ready  to  imbibe  all  their  sei»ti- 
metits  williout  examination,  if  we  reverence  and  love 
them;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  if  we  take  all  freedom  to 
contest  their  opinions,  we  are  sometimes  tempted  to  cast 
otF  that  love  and  reverence  to  their  persons  which  God 
and  nature  dictate.  Youth  is  ever  in  danger  of  these 
two  extremes. 

X.  But  I  think  1  may  safely  conclude  thus:  Though 
the  authority  of  a  teacher  must  not  absolutely  determine 
the  judgment  of  liis  pupil,  yet  young  and  raw  and  un- 
experienced learners  should  pay  all  proper  deference  that 
can  be  to  the  instructions  of  their  parents  and  teachers, 
short  of  absolute  submission  to  tlieir  dictates.  Yet  still 
we  must  maintain  this,  that  they  should  never  receive 
any  opinion  into  their  assent,  whether  it  be  conformable 


OF    LEARNING   A   LANGUAGE.  65 

or  contrary  to  the  tutor's  mind,  without  sufficient  evi- 
dence of  it  first  given  to  their  own  reasoning  powers. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


OF  LEARNING  A  LANGUAGE. 


The  first  thing  required  in  reading  an  author,  or  in 
hearing  lectures  of  a  tptor,  is,  that  you  well  understand 
the  lajiguage  in  w'hicli  they  write  or  speak.  Living 
lariguag(;p,  or  such  as  are  the  native  tongue  of  any  na- 
tion in  tlie  present  age,  are  more  easily  learned  and 
taught  by  a  few  rules  and  much  familiar  converse, 
joined  to  the  reading  some  proper  authors.  Tlie  dead 
languages  are  such  as  cease  to  be  spoken  in  any  nation; 
and  even  these  are  more  easy  to  be  taught  (as  far  as 
may  be)  in  tiiat  method  wherein  living  languages  are 
best  learned,  i.  e.  partly  by  rule,  and  partly  by  rote  or 
custom.  And  it  may  not  be  improper  in  this  place  to 
mention  a  very  few  directions  for  that  purpose. 

I.  Begin  with  the  most  necessary  and  most  general 
observations  and  rules  which  belong  to  that  language, 
compiled  in  tlie  form  of  a  grammar;  and  tliese  are  but 
few  in  most  languages.  Tiie  regular  declensions  and 
variations  of  nouns  and  verbs  should  be  early  and 
thoruuglily  learned  by  heart,  together  with  twenty  or 
thirty  of  the  plainest  and  most  necessary  rules  of  syntax. 

But  let  it  be  observed  that,  in  almost  all  languages, 
some  of  the  very  commonest  nouns  and  verbs  have  many 
irregularities  in  them;  sucli  are  the  common  auxiliary 
verbs — to  be,  and  to  have — to  do,  and  to  be  done,  &c. 
The  comparatives  and  superlatives  of  the  words — good, 
bad,  great,  small,  much,  little,  &c.;  and  these  should  be 
learned  among  the  first  rules  and  variations,  because 
they  continually  occur. 

But  as  to  other  words,  which  are  less  frequent,  let  but 

few  of  the  anomalies  or  irregularities  of  the  tongue  be 

taught  among   the  general   rules  to   young  beginners. 

Tliese  will  come  in  afterwards  to  be  learned  by  advanced 

6* 


56  OF  LEARNING    \    LANGUAGE. 

scholars  in  a  way  of  notes  on  the  rules,  as  in  the  Latin 
Grammar,  called  the  Oxford  Grammar,  or  in  Ruddi- 
man's  notes  on  his  Rudiments,  &c.  Or  they  may  be 
learned  by  examples  alone,  when  they  do  occur;  or  by 
a  larger  and  more  complete  system  of  grammar,  vvliich 
descends  to  the  more  particular  forms  of  speech;  so  the 
helero -lite  nouns  of  the  Latin  tongue,  which  are  taught 
in  the  soiiool-book  called  Quae  Genus,  should  not  be 
touched  in  the  first  learning  of  the  ruduuents  of  the 
tongue. 

II.  As  tlie  grammar  by  which  you  learn  any  tongue 
should  be  very  short  at  first,  !»o  it  must  be  written  in  a 
tongue  with  which  you  are  well  acquainted,  and  wliich 
is  very  familiar  to  you.  Therefore  I  much  prefer  even 
the  commou  English  accidence  (as  it  is  called)  to  any 
grammar  whatsoever  written  in  Latin  for  tliisend.  The 
English  accidence  has,  doubtless,  many  fiuits;  but  those 
editions  of  it  which  were  printed  since  tlie  year  ll^S, 
under  the  correction  of  a  learned  professor,  are  the  best; 
or  the  English  rudiments  of  the  Latin  tongue,  by  that 
learned  North  Briton,  Mr.  Ruddiman,  which  are  per- 
haps the  most  useful  books  of  this  kind  I  am  acquainted 
witli;  especially  because  I  would  not  depart  too  fir  from 
the  ancient  and  conmion  forms  of  teaciiing,  which  seve- 
ral good  grammarians  have  done,  to  the  great  detriment 
of  such  lads  as  have  been  removed  to  otiier  schools. 

The  tiresome  and  unreasonable  method  of  learning" 
the  Latin  tongue  by  a  grammar,  with  Latin  rules, 
w^ould  appear,  even  to  those  masters  who  teach  it  so,  in 
its  proper  colours  of  absurdity  and  ridicule,  if  those  very 
masters  would  attempt  to  learn  the  Chinese  or  Arabic 
tongue,  by  a  grammar  written  in  the  Chinese  or  Arabic 
language.  Mr.  Clarke,  of  Hull,  has  said  enough  in  a 
few  pages  of  the  preface  to  his  new  grammar,  1123,  to 
make  that  practice  appear  very  irrational  and  improper; 
though  he  has  said  it  in  so  warm  and  angry  a  manner, 
that  it  has  kindled  Mr.  Ruddiman  to  write  against  liim, 
and  to  say  what  can  be  said  to  vindicate  a  practice, 
which,  I  think,  is  utterly  indefensible. 

III.  At  the  same  time  when  you  begin  the  rules,  begin 
also  the  practice.     As,  for  instance,  when  you  decline 


OF  LEARNING  A  LANGUAGE.  67 

musa,  mus8B,  read  and  construe  the  same  day  some  easy 
Latin  author,  by  the  help  of  a  tutor,  or  with  some  Eng- 
lish translation:  choose  such  a  book  whose  style  is 
simple,  and  the  subject  of  discourse  is  very  plain,  obvi- 
ous, and  not  hard  to  be  understood:  many  little  books 
have  been  composed  with  this  view,  as  Corderius's  Col- 
loquies, some  of  Erasmus's  little  writings,  the  sayings  of 
the  wise  men  of  Greece,  Cato's  moral  distiches,  and  the 
rest  which  arp  collected  at  the  end  of  Mr.  Ruddiman's 
English  Grammar;  or  the  Latin  Testament,  of  Castel- 
lio's  translation,  which  is  accounted  the  pmest  Latin, 
&c.  These  are  very  proper  upon  this  occasion,  together 
with  /Esop's  and  Phaedrus's  Fables,  and  little  stories, 
and  the  common  and  daily  affairs  of  domestic  life,  writ- 
ten in  the  Latin  tongue.  But  let  tlie  higher  poets,  and 
orators,  and  historians,  and  other  writers  whose  lan- 
guage is  more  laboured,  and  whose  sense  is  more  re- 
mote from  common  life,  be  rather  kept  out  of  sight  till 
there  be  some  proficiency  made  in  tlie  language. 

It  is  strange  that  masters  should  teach  children  so 
early  Tully's  Epistles  or  Orations,  or  the  poerns  of  Ovid 
or  Virgil,  whose  sense  is  often  ditHcult  to  find  because 
of  tlie  great  transposition  of  the  words;  and  when  they 
have  found  the  grammatical  sense,  they  have  very  little 
use  of  it,  because  they  have  scarce  any  notion  of  the 
ideas  and  design  of  the  writer,  it  being  so  remote  from 
the  knowledge  of  a  child:  whereas  little  common  stories 
and  colloquies,  and  the  rules  of  a  child's  beliaviour,  and 
such  obvious  subjects,  will  much  better  assist  the  memo- 
ry of  the  words  by  their  acquaintance  with  the  things. 

IV.  Here  it  may  be  useful  also  to  appoint  the  learner 
to  get  by  heart  the  more  common  and  useful  words,  both 
nouns  and  adjectives,  pronouns  and  verbs,  out  of  some 
well  formed  and  judicious  vocabulary.  This  will  furnish 
1  im  vvitli  names  for  the  most  familiar  ideas. 

V.  As  soon  as  ever  the  learner  is  capable,  let  the  tu- 
tor converse  with  him  in  the  tongue  which  is  to  ba 
learned,  if  it  be  a  living  language,  or  if  it  be  Latin, 
which  is  the  living  language  of  the  learned  world:  thus 
he  will  acquaint  lihnself  with  it  a  little  by  rote,  as  well 
as  by  rule,  and  by  living  practice,  as  well  as  by  reading  tha 


b»  OF  LEARNING  A    LANGUAGE. 

writing's  of  the  dead.  For  if  a  child  of  two  years  old  by  this 
method  learns  to  speak  his  mother  tonofue,  I  am  sure  the 
same  method  will  greatly  assist  and  facilitate  the  learn- 
ing of  any  other  language  to  those  who  are  older. 

VI.  Let  the  chief  lessons,  and  the  chief  exercises  of 
schools,  V.  c.  where  Latm  is  learned  (at  least  for  the 
first  year  or  more,)  be  the  nouns,  verbs,  and  general 
rules  of  syntax,  together  with  a  mere  translation  out  of 
some  Latin  author  into  English;  and  let  scholars  be 
employed  and  examined  by  their  teacher  daily  in  redu- 
cing the  words  to  their  original  or  theme,  to  the  first 
case  of  nouns  or  first  tense  of  verbs,  and  giving  an  ac- 
count of  their  formations  and  changes,  their  syntax  and 
dependencies,  wliich  is  called  parsing.  Tliis  is  a  most 
useful  exercise  to  lead  boys  into  a  complete  and  thorough 
knowledge  of  what  they  are  doing. 

The  English  translations,  wiiich  the  learner  has  made, 
should  be  well  corrected  by  the  master,  and  then  they 
should  be  translated  back  again  for  tlie  next  day's  ex- 
ercise by  the  child  into  Latin,  while  the  Latin  author  is 
withheld  from  him;  but  he  should  have  the  Latin  words 
given  him  in  their  first  case  and  tense;  and  should  never 
be  left  to  seek  them  himself  from  a  dictionary;  and 
the  nearer  he  translates  it  to  the  words  of  the  author 
whence  he  derives  his  English,  the  more  sliould  the 
child  be  commended.  Thus  he  will  gain  skill  in  two 
languages  at  once.  I  think  Mr.  Clarke  has  done  good 
service  to  the  public  by  his  translations  of  Latin  books 
for  this  end. 

But  let  the  foolish  custom  of  employing  every  silly 
boy  to  make  themes  or  declamations  and  verses  upon 
moral  subjects,  in  a  strange  tongue,  before  he  under- 
stands common  sense,  even  in  his  own  language,  be 
abandoned  and  cashiered  for  ever. 

Vn.  As  the  learner  improves,  let  him  acquaint  him- 
self with  the  anomalous  words,  the  irregular  declensions 
of  nouns  and  verbs,  the  more  uncommon  connexions  of 
words  m  syntax,  and  the  exceptions  to  the  general  rules 
of  grammar.  But  let  them  all  be  reduced,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  those  several   original  and  general  rules, 


OF  LEARNING  A  LANGUAGE.  69 

which  he  has  learned,  as  the  proper  rank  and  place  to 
which  they  belong. 

VIII.  While  he  is  doing  this,  it  m-ay  be  proper  for 
him  to  converse  with  autliors  which  are  a  little  more 
difficult,  witli  historians,  orators,  poets,  &c.;  but  let  his 
tutor  inform  him  of  the  Roman  or  Greek  customs  which 
occur  therein.  liCt  the  lad  then  translate  some  parts  of 
them  into  his  mother  tongue,  or  into  some  other  well 
known  language,  and  thence  back  again  into  the  origi- 
nal language  of  the  author.  But  let  the  verse  be  trans- 
lated into  prose,  for  poesy  does  not  belong  to  grammar. 

IX.  By  this  time  he  will  be  able  to  acquaint  himself 
with  some  of  the  special  emphases  of  speech,  and  the 
peculiar  idioms  of  the  tongue.  He  sliould  be  taught 
also  the  special  beauties  and  ornaments  of  the  language; 
and  this  m-ay  be  doi::3  partly  by  the  help  of  authors,  who 
have  collected  such  idioms  and  cast  them  into  an  easy 
method,  and  partly  by  the  judicious  remarks  which  his 
instructor  may  make  upon  tlie  authors  which  he  reads, 
wheresijever  such  peculiarities  of  speech  or  special  ele- 
gancies occur. 

X.  Though  the  labour  of  learning  all  the  lessons  by 
heart  that  are  borrowed  from  poetical  authors  which 
they  construe,  is  an  unjust  and  unnecessary  imposition 
upon  the  learner,  yet  he  must  take  the  pains  to  commit 
to  memory  the  most  necessary,  if  not  all  the  common 
rules  of  grammar,  with  an  example  or  two  under  each 
of  them:  and  some  of  the  select  and  most  useful  periods 
or  sentences  in  the  Latin  or  Greek  author  which  he 
reads  may  be  learned  by  heart,  together  with  some  of 
the  choicer  lessons  out  of  their  poets;  and  sometimes 
whole  episodes  out  of  heroic  poems,  &c.  as  well  as 
whole  odes   among  the  lyrics,  may  deserve  this  honour. 

XI.  Let  this  be  always  carefully  observed,  that  the 
learners  perfectly  understand  the  sense  as  well  as  the 
language  of  all  those  rules,  lessons,  or  paragraphs,  which 
they  attempt  to  commit  to  memory.  Let  the  teacher 
possess  them  of  their  true  meaning,  and  then  the  labour 
will  become  easy  and  pleasant:  whereas,  to  impose  on  a 
child  to  get  by  heart  a  long  scroll  of  unknown  phrases 
or  words,  without  any  ideas  under  them,  is  a  piece  of 


70  OF  LEARNING  A  LANGUAGE. 

useless  tyranti}?,  a  cruel  imposition,  and  a  practice  fitter 
for  a  jackdaw  or  a  parrot,  than  for  any  thing  that  wears 
the  shape  of  a  man. 

XII.  And  here,  I  think,  I  have  a  fair  occasion  given 
rne  to  consider  that  question  which  has  been  often  de- 
bated in  conversation,  viz.  whetlier  the  teaching  of  a 
school  full  of  boys  to  learn  Latin  by  the  lieathen  poets,  as 
Ovid  in  his  Epistles,  and  the  silly  fables  of  his  Meta- 
morphoses, Horace,  Juvenal,  and  Martial,  in  their  im- 
pure odes,  satires,  and  epigrams,  &c.  is  so  proper  and 
agreeable  a  practice  in  a  Clu-istian  country. 

XIII.  (1.)  I  grant  the  language  and  style  of  those 
men,  who  wrote  in  their  own  native  tongue,  must  be 
more  pure  and  perfect,  in  some  nice  elegancies  and 
peculiarities,  than  modern  writers  of  other  nations  who 
have  imitated  them;  and  it  is  owned  also,  that  the  beau- 
ties of  tiieir  poesy  may  much  excel;  but  in  either  of 
these  things  boys  cannot  be  supposed  to  be  much  im- 
proved or  injured  by  one  or  the  other. 

XIV.  (2.)  It  shall  be  confessed  too  that  modern  poets, 
in  every  living  language,  have  brought  into  their  work 
so  many  words,  epithets,  phrases,  and  metaphors,  from 
the  heatlien  fables  and  stories  of  their  gods  and  heroes, 
that  in  order  to  understand  these  modern  writers,  it  is 
necessary  to  know  a  little  of  those  ancient  follies:  but  it 
may  be  answered,  that  a  good  dictionary,  or  such  a  book 
as  tlie  Pantheon  or  history  of  those  Gentile  deities,  may 
give  suflicient  information  of  those  stories,  so  far  as  they 
are  necessary  and  useful  to  school  boys. 

XV.  (3.)  I  will  grant  yet  further,  that  lads  who  are 
designed  to  make  great  scholars  or  divines,  may,  by 
reading  these  heathen  poets,  be  taught  better  to  under- 
stand the  writings  of  the  ancient  fathers  against  the 
heathen  religion;  and  they  learn  here  what  ridiculous 
fooleries  the  Gentile  nations  believed  as  the  articles  of 
tlieir  faith,  what  wretched  and  foul  idolatries  they  in- 
dulged and  practised  as  duties  of  religion,  for  want  of 
the  divine  revelation.  But  this  perhaps  may  be  learned 
as  well  either  by  the  Pantheon,  or  some  other  collection 
at  school;  or  after  they  have  left  the  school,  they  may 


OF  LEARNING    A   LANGUAGE.  71 

read  what  their  own  incUnations  lead  them  to,  and 
whatsoever  of  this  kind  may  be  really  useful  for  them. 

XVI.  But  the  great  question  is,  whetlier  all  these  ad- 
vantages which  have  been  mentioned  will  compensate 
for  the  long  months  and  years  that  are  wasted  among 
their  incredible  and  tridii.o;  romances,  their  false  and 
shameful  stories  of  their  gods  and  goddesses  and  their 
amours,  and  the  lewd  heroes  and  vicious  poets  of  the 
heathen  world.  Can  these  idle  and  ridiculous  tales  be 
of  any  real  and  solid  advantage  in  human  life.^  Do  they 
not  too  often  defile  the  mind  with  vain,  mischievous, 
and  impure  ideas?  Do  they  not  stick  long  upon  the 
fancy,  and  leave  an  unhappy  influence  upon  youth?  Do 
they  not  tincture  the  imagination  with  folly  and  vice 
very  early,  and  pervert  it  from  all  that  is  good  and  holy? 

XVII.  Upon  the  whole  survey  of  things  it  is  my 
opinion  that,  for  almost  all  boys  who  learn  this  tongue, 
it  would  be  much  safer  to  be  taught  Latin  poesy  (as 
soon  and  as  far  as  they  can  need  it)  from  those  excellent 
translations  of  David's  Psalms,  which  are  given  us  by 
Buchanan  in  the  various  measures  of  Horace;  and  the 
lower  classes  had  better  read  Dr.  Johnston's  translation 
of  these  psalms,  another  elegant  writer  of  the  Scots 
nation,  instead  of  Ovid's  Epistles;  for  he  has  turned  the 
same  psalms,  perhaps  with  greater  elegance,  into  elegiac 
verse,  whereof  the  learned  W.  Benson,  esq.  has  lately 
published  a  noble  edition,  and  I  hear  that  these  psalms 
are  honoured  with  an  increasing  use  in  the  schools  of 
Holland  and  Scotland.  A  stanza  or  a  couplet  of  these 
writers  would  now  and  then  stick  upon  the  minds  of 
youth,  and  would  furnish  them  infinitely  better  with 
pious  and  moral  thoughts,  and  do  something  towards 
making  them  good  men  and  Christians. 

XVtIl.  A  little  book  collected  from  the  psalms  of 
both  these  translators  Buchanan  and  Johnston,  and  a 
few  other  Christian  poets,  would  be  of  excellent  use  for 
schools  to  begin  their  instructions  in  Latin  poesy;  and  I 
am  well  assured  this  would  be  richly  sufficient  for  all 
those  in  lower  rank,  who  never  design  a  learned  profes- 
sion, and  yet  custom  has  foolishlv  bound  them  to  learn 
that  language. 


72  OF  LEARNING  A  LANGUAGE. 

But  lest  it  should  be  thought  hard  to  cast  Horace 
and  Virgil,  Ovid  and  Juvenal  entirely  out  of  the  schools, 
I  add,  if  here  and  there  a  few  lyric  odes,  or  pieces  of 
satires,  or  some  episodes  of  heroic  verse,  with  here  and 
there  an  epigram  of  Martial,  all  which  sliall  be  clear 
from  the  stains  of  vice  and  impiety,  and  which  may  in- 
spire the  mind  with  noble  sentiments,  fire  the  fancy  w'ith 
bright  and  warm  ideas,  or  teach  lessons  of  morality  and 
prudence,  were  chosen  out  of  those  ancient  Roman 
writers  for  the  use  of  tlie  scliools,  and  were  collected  and 
printed  in  one  moderate  volume,  or  two  at  the  most,  it 
would  be  abundantly  sufficient  provision  out  of  the 
Roman  poets  for  ihe  instruction  of  boys  in  all  that  is 
necessary  in  that  age  of  life. 

Surely  Juvenal  himself  would  not  have  the  face  to 
vindicate  the  masters  who  teach  boys  his  sixth  satire, 
and  many  paragraphs  of  several  others,  when  he  him- 
self has  charged  us, 

Nil  diclu  foedum,  visuque,  haec  limina  tangat 
Intra  quae  puer  est.  Sat.  14. 

Suffer  no  lewdness,  nor  indecent  speech, 
Th'  apartment  of  the  tender  youth  to  reach. 

Dryden. 

Thus  far  in  answer  to  the  foregoing  question. 

But  I  retire;  for  Mr.  Clarke,  of  Hull,  in  his  treatise 
on  education,  and  Mr.  Philips,  preceptor  to  the  Duke 
of  Cumberland,  have  given  more  excellent  directions 
for  learning  Latin. 

XIX.  When  a  language  is  learned,  if  it  be  of  any  use 
at  all,  it  is  a  pity  it  should  be  forgotten  again.  It  is 
proper,  therefore,  to  take  all  just  opportunities  to  read 
something  frequently  in  that  language,  when  other  ne- 
cessary and  important  studies  will  give  you  leave.  As 
in  learning  any  tongue,  dictionaries  which  contain  words 
and  phrases  should  always  be  at  hand,  so  they  should 
be  ever  kept  witliin  reach  by  persons  who  would  re- 
member a  tongue  which  tliey  liave  learned.  Nor  should 
we  at  any  time  content  ourselves  with  a  doubtful  guess 
at  the  sense  or  meaning  of  any  words  which  occur,  but 
consult  the  dictionary,  which  may  give  us  certain  infer- 


OF  LEARNING  A  LANGUAGE.  73 

Illation,  and  thus  secure  us  from  mistake.  It  is  mere 
sloth  which  makes  us  content  ourselves  with  uncertain 
guesses;  and  indeed  this  is  neither  safe  nor  useful  for 
persons  who  would  learn  any  language  or  science,  or 
have  a  desire  to  retain  what  they  have  acquired. 

XX.  When  you  have  learned  one  or  many  languages 
ever  so  perfectly,  take  heed  of  priding  yourself  in  these 
acquisitions:  they  are  but  mere  treasures  of  words,  or 
instruments  of  true  and  solid  knowledge,  and  whose 
chief  design  is  to  lead  us  into  an  acquaintance  with 
things,  or  to  enable  us  the  more  easily  to  convey  those 
ideas  or  that  knowledge  to  others.  An  acquaintance 
with  the  various  tongues  is  nothing  else  but  a  relief 
against  the  mischief  which  the  building  of  Babel  intro- 
duced: and  were  I  master  of  as  many  languages  as  were 
spoken  at  Babel,  I  should  make  but  a  poor  pretence  to 
true  learning  or  knowledge,  if  I  had  not  clear  and  dis- 
tinct ideas,  and  useful  notions  in  my  head  under  the 
words  which  my  tongue  could  pronounce.  Yet  so  un- 
happy a  thing  is  human  nature,  tliat  this  sort  of  know- 
ledge of  sounds  and  syllables  is  ready  to  puff  up  the 
mind  with  vanity,  more  than  the  most  valuable  and 
solid  improvements  of  it.  The  pride  of  a  grammarian. 
or  a  critic,  generally  exceeds  that  of  a  philosopher. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

OF  INQUIRING  INTO  THE  SENSE  AND  MEANING  OF  ANY 
WRITER  OR  SPEAKER,  AND  ESPECIALLY  THE  SENSE  OP 
THE  SACRED  WRITINGS. 

It  is  a  great  un happiness  that  tliere  is  such  an  ambi- 
guity in  words  and  forms  of  speech,  that  the  same  sen- 
tence may  be  drawn  into  different  significations:  where- 
by it  conies  to  pass,  that  it  is  difficult  sometimes  for  the 
reader  exactly  to  hit  upon  the  ideas  which  the  writer  or 
speaker  had  in  his  mind.  Some  of  the  best  rules  to  di- 
rect us  herein  are  such  as  tliese: 

I.  Be  well  acquainted  with  the  tongue  itself,  or  lan- 
7 


74  OF  KNOAVING  THE  SENSE 

guage,  wlierein  the  author's  mind  is  expressed.  Learn 
not  only  the  true  meaning  of  each  word,  but  the  sense 
which  tliose  words  obtain  when  placed  in  such  a  par- 
ticular situation  and  order.  Acquaint  yourself  will)  the 
peculiar  power  and  empliasis  of  tlie  several  modes  of 
speech,  and  the  various  idioms  of  the  tongue.  The 
secondary  ideas  wliich  custom  has  superadded  to  many 
words  should  also  be  known,  as  well  as  the  particular 
and  primary  meaning  of  them,  if  we  would  understand 
any  writer.     See  Logic,  part  1.  cap.  4.  §  3. 

II.  Consider  the  signification  of  those  words  and 
phrases,  more  especially  in  the  same  nation,  or  near  the 
same  age  in  which  tliat  writer  lived,  and  in  what  sense 
they  are  used  by  authors  of  the  same  nation,  opinion, 
sect,  party,  &.c. 

Upon  this  account  we  may  learn  to  interpret  several 
phrases  of  the  New  Testament,  out  of  that  version  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible  into  Greek,  which  is  called  the  Sep- 
tuagint;  for  though  tiiat  version  be  very  imperfect  and 
defective  in  many  things,  yet  it  seems  to  me  evident 
that  the  holy  writers  of  the  New  Testament  made  use 
of  that  version  many  times  in  their  citation  of  texts  out 
of  the  Bible. 

III.  Compare  the  words  and  phrases  in  one  place  of 
an  author,  with  the  same  or  kindred  words  and  phrases 
used  in  other  places  of  the  same  author,  wliicli  are 
generally  called  parallel  places;  and  as  one  expression  ex- 
plains another  wliich  is  like  it,  so  sometimes  a  contrary 
expression  will  explain  its  contrary. 

Remember  always  that  a  writer  best  interprets  him- 
self; as  we  believe  the  Holy  Spirit  to  be  the  supreme 
agent  in  the  writings  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
New,  he  can  best  explain  himself.  Hence  the  theologi- 
cal rule  arises,  that  scripture  is  the  best  interpreter  of 
scripture;  and  therefore  concordances,  which  show  us 
parallel  places,  are  of  excellent  use  for  interpretation. 

IV.  Consider  the  subject  on  which  the  author  is  treat- 
ing, and  by  comparing  other  places  where  he  treats  of 
the  same  subject,  you  may  learn  his  sense  in  the  place 
which  you  are  reading,  though  some  of  the  terms  wiiich 
he  uses  in  those  two  places  may  be  very  ditFerent. 


OF  WRITERS   OR    SPEAKERS.  75 

And  on  the  other  liand,  if  the  author  uses  the  same 
words  where  the  subject  of  which  he  treats  is  not  just 
the  same,  you  cannot  learn  his  sense  by  comparing 
those  two  places,  though  the  mere  words  may  seem  to 
agree:  for  some  authors,  when  they  are  treating  of  a 
quite  ditferent  subject,  may  use  perhaps  the  same  words 
in  a  very  ditferent  sense,  as  St.  Paul  does  the  words  faith, 
and  law,  and  riofhteousness. 

V.  Observe  fiie  scope  and  design  of  the  writer;  in- 
quire into  his  aim  and  end  in  that  book,  or  section,  or 
paragraph,  which  will  help  to  explain  particular  senten- 
ces: for  we  suppose  a  wise  and  judicious  writer  directs 
his  expressions  generally  toward  his  designed  end. 

VI.  When  an  author  speaks  of  any  subject  occasion- 
ally, let  his  sense  be  explained  by  those  places  where 
he  treats  of  it  distinctly  and  professedly:  where  he 
speaks  of  any  subject  in  mystical  or  metaphorical  terms, 
explain  them  by  other  places  where  he  treats  of  the 
same  subject  in  terms  that  are  plain  and  literal:  where 
he  speaks  in  an  oratorical,  atfecting,  or  persuasive  way, 
let  this  be  explained  by  other  places  where  he  treats  of 
the  same  theme  in  a  doctrinal  or  instructive  way:  where 
the  author  speaks  more  strictly  and  particularly  on  any 
theme,  it  will  explain  the  more  loose  and  general  ex- 
pressions: where  he  treats  more  largely,  it  will  explain 
the  shorter  hints  and  brief  intimations;  and  wheresoever 
he  writes  more  obscurely,  search  out  some  more  per- 
spicuous passages  in  the  same  writer,  by  which  to  de- 
termine the  sense  of  that  obscure  language. 

VII.  Consider  not  only  the  person  who  is  introduced 
speaking,  but  the  persons  to  whom  the  speech  is  direct- 
ed, the  circumstances  of  time  and  place,  the  temper 
and  spirit  of  tiie  speaker,  as  well  as  the  temper  and 
spirit  of  the  hearers:  in  order  to  interpret  scripture  well, 
there  needs  a  good  acquaintance  with  the  Jewish  cus- 
toms, some  knowledge  of  the  ancient  Roman  and  Greek 
times  and  manners,  which  sometimes  strike  a  strange 
and  surprising  light  upon  passages  which  were  before 
very  obscure. 

VIII.  In  particular  propositions,  the  sense  of  an  au- 
thor may  sometimes  be  known  by  the  inferences  which 


76  OF  KNOWING  THE  SENSE 

lie  draws  from  them,  and  all  those  senses  may  be  excluded 
which  will  not  allow  of  that  inference. 

Note.  This  rule  indeed  is  not  always  certain,  in  read- 
ing' and  interpreting^  human  authors,  because  they  may 
mistake  in  drawing  their  inferences;  but  in  explaining 
scripture  it  is  a  sure  rule;  for  the  sacred  and  inspired 
writers  always  make  just  inferences  from  their  own 
propositions.  Yet  even  in  them,  we  must  take  heed  we 
do  not  mistake  an  allusion  for  an  inference,  which  is 
many  times  introduced  almost  in  the  same  manner. 

IX.  If  it  be  a  matter  of  controversy,  the  true  sense  of 
the  author  is  sometimes  known  by  the  objections  that 
are  brought  against  it.  So  we  may  be  well  assured, 
the  apostle  speaks  against  our  "justification  in  the  sight 
of  God,  by  our  own  works  of  holiness,"  in  tlie  3d,  4th, 
and  5th  chapters  of  the  epistle  to  the  Romans,  because 
of  the  objection  brought  against  him  in  the  beginning  of 
the  6th  chapter,  viz.  "What  shall  we  say  then?  shall  we 
continue  in  sin  that  grace  may  abound?"  which  objec- 
tion could  never  have  been  raised,  if  he  had  been  prov- 
ing our  justification  by  our  own  works  of  righteousness. 

X.  In  matters  of  dispute,  take  heed  of  warping  the 
sense  of  the  writer  to  your  own  opinion,  by  any  latent 
prejudices  of  self-love  and  party  spirit.  It  is  this  reign- 
ing principle  of  prejudice  and  party,  that  has  given 
such  a  variety  of  senses  both  to  the  sacred  writers  and 
others,  which  would  never  have  come  into  the  mind  of 
the  reader  if  he  had  not  laboured  under  some  such  pre- 


XI.  For  the  same  reason  take  heed  of  the  prejudices 
of  passion,  malice,  envy,  pride,  or  opposition  to  an  au- 
thor, whereby  you  may  be  easily  tempted  to  put  a  false 
and  invidious  sense  upon  his  words.  Lay  aside  there- 
fore a  carping  spirit,  and  read  even  an  adversary  with 
attention  and  diligence,  with  an  honest  design  to  find 
out  his  true  meaning;  do  not  snatch  at  little  lapses  and 
appearances  of  mistake,  in  opposition  to  his  declared 
and  avowed  meaning;  nor  impute  any  sense  or  opinion 
to  him  which  he  denies  to  be  his  opinion,  unless  it  be 
proved  by  the  most  plain  and  express  language. 

Lastly,  remember  that  you  treat  every  author,  writer, 


OF  WRITERS  OR  SPEAKERS.  77 

or  speaker,  just  as  you  yourselves  would  be  willing  to 
be  treated  by  others,  who  are  searching  out  the  meaning 
of  what  you  write  or  speak;  and  maintain  upon  your 
spirit  an  awful  sense  of  the  presence  of  God,  who  is  the 
judge  of  hearts,  and  will  punish  those  who,  by  a  base 
and  dishonest  turn  of  mind,  wilfully  pervert  the  meaning 
of  the  sacred  writers,  or  even  of  common  authors,  under 
the  influence  of  culpable  prejudices.  See  more.  Logic, 
part  I.  cap.  6,  §  3,  "  Directions  concerning  the  deftni- 
tions  of  names." 


CHAPTER  IX. 

RULES  OF  IMPROVEMENT  BY  CONVERSATION. 

I.  If  we  would  improve  our  minds  by  conversation, 
it  is  a  great  happiness  to  be  acquainted  with  persons 
wiser  tiian  ourselves.  It  is  a  piece  of  useful  advice 
therefore  to  get  the  favour  of  their  conversation  fre- 
quently, as  far  as  circumstances  will  allow:  and  if  they 
happen  to  be  a  little  reserved,  use  all  obliging  methods 
to  draw  out  of  them  what  may  increase  your  own  know- 
ledge. 

II.  Wliatsoever  company  you  are  in,  waste  not  the 
time  in  trifle  and  impertinence.  Ifyou spend  some  hours 
amongst  children,  talk  with  them  according  to  their 
capacity;  mark  the  young  buddings  of  infant  reason; 
observe  the  diflerent  motions  and  distinct  workings  of 
t!ie  animal  and  the  mind,  as  far  as  you  can  discern  them; 
take  notice  by  what  degrees  tlie  little  creature  grows  up 
to  the  use  of  his  reasoning  ])owers,  and  what  early  pre- 
judices beset  and  endanger  liis  understanding.  By  this 
means  you  will  learn  to  address  yourself  to  children  for 
their  beneflt,  and  perhaps  you  may  derive  some  useful 
philosophemes  or  theorems  for  your  own  entertainment. 

III.  Ifyou  happen  to  be  in  company  with  a  merchant 
or  a  sailor,  a  farmer  or  a  mechanic,  a  milk-maid  or  a 
spinster,  15ad  them  into  a  discourse  of  the  matters  of 
their  own  peculiar  province  or  profession;  for  every  one 

7* 


78  OF    CONVERSATION. 

knows,  or  should  know,  their  own  business  best.  In 
this  sense  a  common  mechanic  is  wiser  than  tlie  philoso- 
pher. By  this  means  you  may  gain  some  improvement 
in  knowledge  from  every  one  you  meet. 

IV.  Confine  not  yourself  always  to  one  sort  of  com- 
pany, or  to  persons  of  the  same  party  or  opinion,  either 
in  matters  of  learning',  religion,  or  civil  life,  lest,  if  you 
should  happen  to  be  nursed  up  or  educated  in  early 
mistake,  you  should  be  confirmed  and  established  in  the 
same  mistake,  by  conversing  only  with  persons  of  the 
same  sentiments.  A  free  and  general  conversation  with 
men  of  very  various  countries  and  of  different  parties, 
opinions,  and  practices,  so  far  as  it  may  be  done  safely,  is 
of  excellent  use  to  undeceive  us  in  many  wrong  judg- 
ments which  we  may  have  framed,  and  to  lead  us  into 
juster  thoughts.  It  is  said,  when  the  king  of  Siani,  near 
China,  first  conversed  with  some  European  merchants, 
who  sought  the  favour  of  trading  on  his  coast,  he  in- 
quired of  them  some  of  the  common  appearances  of 
summer  and  winter  in  their  country;  and  when  they 
told  him  of  water  growing  so  hard  in  their  rivers,  that 
men  and  horses  and  laden  carriages  passed  over  it,  and 
that  rain  sometimes  fell  down  as  wliite  and  light  as 
feathers,  and  sometimes  almost  as  hard  as  stones,  he 
would  not  believe  a  syllable  they  said;  for  ice,  snow,  and 
hail,  were  names  and  things  utterly  unknown  to  him 
and  to  his  subjects  in  that  iiot  climate:  he  renounced  all 
traffic  with  such  shameful  liars,  and  would  not  suffer 
them  to  trade  with  his  people.  See  here  the  natural 
effects  of  gross  ignorance. 

Conversation  with  foreigners  on  various  occasions, 
has  a  happy  influence  to  enlarge  our  minds,  and  to  set 
them  free  from  many  errors  and  gross  prejudices  we  are 
ready  to  imbibe  concerning  them.  Domicilliis  has  never 
travelled  five  miles  from  his  mother's  chimney,  and  lie 
imagines  all  outlandish  men  are  papishes,  and  worship 
nothing  but  a  cross.  Tityrus,  the  shepherd,  was  bred 
up  all  his  life  in  the  country,  and  never  saw  Rome;  he 
fancied  it  to  be  only  a  huge  village,  and  was  therefure 
infinitely  surprised  to  find  such  palaces,  such  streets, 
such  glittering  treasures  and  gay  magnificence  as  his 


OF    CONVERSATION.  79 

first  i(;urney  to  the  city  showed  him,  and  with  wonder  he 
confesses  his  folly  and  mistake. 

So  Virgil  introduces  a  poor  shepherd, 

Urbein  quam  dicunt  Romam,  Meliboec,  pulavi 
Stulius  tgo  huic  nostra;  siiiiilein,  quo  sa;pe  solemus 
Pastorcs  ovium  teneros  depellere  ioetiis,  &c. 

Thus  Enghshed: — 

Fool  that  I  was!  I  thought  imperial  Rome 

Like  market-towns,  where  once  a  week  we  come. 

And  thither  drive  our  tender  lambs  from  home. 

Conversation  would  have  given  Tityrus  a  better  notion 
of  Rome,  though  he  had  never  happened  to  travel  thither. 

V.  In  mixed  compan}'^,  among  acquaintance  and 
strangers,  endeavour  to  learn  something  from  all.  Be 
swift  to  liear;  but  be  cautious  of  your  tongue,  lest  you 
betray  your  ignorance,  and  perhaps  offend  some  of  those 
who  are  present  too.  The  scripture  severely  censures 
those  who  speak  evil  of  the  things  they  know  not.  Ac- 
quaint yourself  therefore  sometimes  with  persons  and 
parties  which  are  far  distant  from  your  common  life  and 
customs:  this  is  a  way  whereby  you  may  furm  a  wiser 
opinion  of  men  and  tilings.  Prove  all  things,  and  hold 
fast  that  which  is  good,  is  a  divine  rule,  and  it  comes 
from  the  Father  of  light  and  truth.  But  young  persons 
should  practise  it  indeed  with  due  limitation,  and  under 
the  eye  of  their  elders. 

VI.  Be  not  frighted  nor  provoked  at  opinions  different 
from  your  own.  Some  persons  are  so  confident  they 
are  in  the  right,  that  they  will  not  come  within  the 
hearing  of  any  notions  but  their  own:  they  canton  out 
to  themselves  a  little  province  in  the  intellectual  world, 
where  they  fancy  the  light  shines;  and  all  the  rest  is  in 
darkness.  They  never  venture  into  the  ocean  of  know- 
ledge, nor  survey  the  riches  of  other  minds,  which  are 
as  solid  and  as  useful,  and  perhaps  are  finer  gold  than 
what  they  ever  possessed.  Let  not  men  imagine  there 
is  no  certain  truth  but  in  the  sciences  which  they  study, 
and  amongst  that  party  in  which  they  were  born  and 
educated. 

VII.  BeUeve  that  it  is  possible  to   learn  something 


80  OF  CONVERSATION. 

from  persons  much  below  yourself.  We  are  all  short- 
sighted creatures;  our  views  are  also  narrow  and  limited; 
we  often  see  but  one  side  of  a  matter,  and  do  not  extend 
our  sight  far  and  wide  enough  to  reach  every  thing  tliat 
has  a  connexion  with  the  thing  we  talk  of;  we  see  but 
in  part,  and  know  but  in  part;  therefore  it  is  no  wonder 
we  form  not  right  conclusions;  because  we  do  not  survey 
the  whole  of  any  subject  or  argument.  Even  tlie  proud- 
est admirer  of  his  own  parts  inight  find  it  useful  to  con- 
sult with  others,  though  of  inferior  capacity  and  penetra- 
tion. We  have  a  different  prospect  of  tiie  same  thing 
(if  I  may  so  speak)  according  to  the  different  position 
of  our  understandings  towards  it:  a  weaker  man  may 
sometimes  liglit  on  notions  which  have  escaped  a  wiser, 
and  which  the  wiser  man  might  make  a  happy  use  of, 
if  he  would  condescend  to  take  notice  of  them. 

VIII.  It  is  of  considerable  advantage,  when  we  arc 
pursuing  any  difficult  point  of  knowledge,  to  have  a 
society  of  ingenious  correspondents  at  hand,  to  whom 
we  may  propose  it:  for  every  man  has  something  of  a 
different  genius  and  a  various  turn  of  mind,  whereby 
the  subject  proposed  will  be  shown  in  all  its  lights,  it 
will  be  represented  in  all  its  forms,  and  every  side  of 
it  be  turned  to  view,  that  a  juster  judgment  may  be 
framed. 

IX.  To  make  conversation  more  valuable  and  useful, 
whether  it  be  in  a  designed  or  accidental  visit,  among 
persons  of  the  same  or  of  different  sexes,  after  the  ne- 
cessary salutations  are  finished,  and  the  stream  of  com- 
mon talk  begins  to  hesitate,  or  runs  flat  and  low,  let 
some  one  person  take  a  book  which  may  be  agreeable  to 
the  whole  company,  and  by  common  consent  let  him 
read  in  it  ten  lines,  or  a  paragraph  or  two,  or  a  few  pa- 
ges, till  some  word  or  sentence  gives  an  occasion  for  any 
of  the  company  to  offer  a  thought  or  two  relating  to 
that  subject:  interruption  of  the  reader  should  be  no 
blame;  for  conversation  is  the  busmess:  whether  it  be  to 
confirm  what  the  author  says,  or  to  improve  it,  to  en- 
large u[)on  or  to  correct  it,  to  object  against  it,  or  to  ask 
any  question  that  is  akin  to  it;  and  let  every  one  that 
please  add  their  opinion  and  promote  the  conversation. 


OF  CONVERSATION.  81 

When  the  discourse  sinks  again,  or  diverts  to  trifles,  let 
him  that  reads  pursue  the  page,  and  read  on  further  para- 
graplis  or  pages,  till  some  occasion  is  given  by  a  word 
or  sentence  for  a  new  discourse  to  be  started,  and  that 
with  the  utmost  ease  and  freedom.  Such  a  method  as 
this  would  prevent  the  hours  of  a  visit  from  running  all 
to  waste;  and  by  this  means,  even  among  scholars,  they 
would  seldom  find  occasion  for  that  too  just  and  bitter 
reflection,  "  I  have  lost  my  time  in  the  company  of  the 
learned." 

By  such  a  practice  as  this,  young  ladies  may  very 
honourably  and  agreeably  improve  their  hours;  while  one 
applies  herself  to  reading,  the  others  employ  their  atten- 
tion, even  among  the  various  artiflces  of  the  needle;  but 
let  all  of  them  make  their  occasional  remarks  or  inqui- 
ries. This  will  guard  a  great  deal  of  that  precious  time 
from  modish  trifling,  impertinence,  or  scandal,  which 
might  otherwise  afford  matter  for  painful  repentance. 

Observe  this  rule  in  general,  whensoever  it  lies  in 
your  power  to  lead  the  conversation,  let  it  be  directed  to 
some  profitable  point  of  knowledge  or  practice,  so  far  as 
may  be  done  with  decency;  and  let  not  the  discourse  and 
the  hours  be  suffered  to  run  loose  without  aim  or  de- 
sign: and  when  a  subject  is  started,  pass  not  hastily  to 
another,  before  you  have  brought  the  present  theme  of 
discourse  to  some  tolerable  issue,  or  a  joint  consent  to 
drop  it. 

X.  Attend  with  sincere  diligence,  while  any  one  of 
the  company  is  declaring  his  sense  of  the  question  pro- 
posed: hear  the  argument  with  patience,  though  it  differ 
ever  so  much  from  your  sentiments,  for  you  yourself  are 
very  desirous  to  be  heard  with  patience  by  others  who 
differ  from  you.  Let  not  your  thoughts  be  active  and 
busy  all  the  while  to  find  out  something  to  contradict, 
and  by  what  means  to  oppose  the  speaker,  especially  in 
matters  which  are  not  brought  to  an  issue.  This  is  a 
frequent  and  unhappy  temper  and  practice.  You  should 
rather  be  intent  and  solicitous  to  take  up  the  mind  and 
meaning  of  the  speaker,  zealous  to  seize  and  approve  all 
that  is  true  in  his  discourse;  nor  yet  should  you  want 
courage  to  oppose  where  it  is  necessary;  but  let  your 


82  OF  CONVERSATION. 

modesty  and  patience,  and  a  friendly  temper,  be  as  con- 
spicuous as  your  zeal. 

XI.  When  a  man  speaks  with  much  freedom  and 
ease,  and  gives  his  opinion  in  the  plainest  language  of 
common  sense,  do  not  presently  imagine  you  shall  gain 
nothing  by  his  company.  Sometimes  you  will  find  a 
person  who,  in  his  conversation  or  his  writings,  delivers 
his  thoughts  in  so  plain,  so  easy,  so  familiar,  and  per- 
spicuous a  manner,  tliat  you  both  understand  and  assent 
to  every  thing  he  saith,  as  fast  as  you  read  or  hear  it: 
hereupon  some  hearers  have  been  ready  to  conclude  in 
haste,  Surely  this  man  saith  none  but  common  things;  I 
knew  as  much  before,  or  1  would  have  said  all  this  my- 
self This  is  a  frequent  mistake.  Pellucido  was  a  very 
great  genius;  when  he  spoke  in  the  senate,  he  was  wont 
to  convej'  his  ideas  in  so  simple  and  happy  a  manner  as 
to  instruct  and  convince  every  hearer,  and  to  enforce  the 
conviction  througli  the  whole  illustrious  assembly;  and 
that  with  so  much  evidence,  that  you  would  have  been 
ready  to  wonder,  that  every  one  who  spoke  had  not  said 
the  same  things:  but  Pellucido  was  the  only  man 
that  could  do  it;  the  only  speaker  who  had  attained  this 
art  and  honour.  Such  is  the  writer  of  whom  Horace 
would  say, 

Ut  sibi  quivis 

Speret  idem;  sudet  multumj  frustraque  laboret 

Ausus  idem.  De  ^rt.  Poet, 

Smooth  be  your  style,  and  plain  and  natural. 
To  strike  the  sons  of  Wapiiing  or  Whitehall. 
While  others  think  this  easy  to  attain, 
Let  them  but  try,  and  with  their  utmost  pain, 
They'll  sweat  and  strive  to  imitate  in  vain. 

XII.  If  any  thing  seem  dark  in  the  discourse  of  your 
companion,  so  that  you  have  not  a  clear  idea  of  what  is 
spoken,  endeavour  to  obtain  a  clearer  conception  of  it  by 
a  decent  manner  of  inquiry.  Do  not  charge  the  speaker 
with  obscurity,  either  in  bis  sense  or  his  words,  but 
entreat  his  favour  to  relieve  your  own  want  of 'penetra- 
tion, or  to  add  an  enlightening  word  or  two,  that  you 
may  take  up  his  whole  meaning. 

If  difficulties  arise  in  your  mind,  and  constrain  your 


OF  CONVERSATION.  83 

dissent  to  the  things  spoken,  represent  what  objection 
some  persons  would  be  ready  to  make  against  the  senti- 
ments of  the  speaker,  without  telhng  him  you  oppose. 
This  manner  of  address  carries  something  more  modest 
and  obhging  in  it,  than  to  appear  to  raise  objections  of 
your  own  by  way  of  contradiction  to  him  that  spoke. 

XIII.  When  you  are  forced  to  differ  from  him  who 
dehvers  liis  sense  on  any  point,  yet  agree  as  far  as  you 
can,  and  represent  how  far  you  agree;  and  if  there  be 
any  room  for  it,  explain  the  words  of  the  speaker  in  such 
a  sense  to  which  you  can  in  general  assent,  and  so  agree 
with  him,  or  at  least,  by  a  small  addition  or  alteration 
of  his  sentiments,  show  your  own  sense  of  things.  It  is 
the  practice  and  delight  of  a  candid  hearer,  to  make  it 
appear  how  unwilling  he  is  to  differ  from  him  that 
speaks.  Let  the  speaker  know  that  it  is  nothing  but 
truth  constrains  you  to  oppose  him;  and  let  that  differ- 
ence be  always  expressed  in  few,  and  civil,  and  chosen 
words,  such  as  may  give  the  least  offence. 

And  be  careful  always  to  take  Solomon''s  rule  with 
you,  and  let  your  correspondent  fairly  finish  his  speech 
before  you  reply;  "for  he  that  answereth  a  matter  be- 
fore he  heareth  it,  it  is  folly  and  shame  unto  him." 
Prov.  xviii.  13. 

A  little  watchfulness,  care,  and  practice  in  younger 
life,  will  render  all  these  things  more  easy,  familiar,  and 
natural  to  you,  and  will  grow  into  habit. 

XIV.  As  you  should  carry  about  with  you  a  constant 
and  sincere  sense  of  your  own  ignorance,  so  you  should 
not  be  afraid  nor  ashamed  to  confess  this  ignorance,  by 
takingvall  proper  opportunities  to  ask  and  inquire  for 
farther  information;  whetlier  it  be  the  meaning  of  a 
word,  the  nature  of  a  thing,  the  reason  of  a  proposition, 
the  custom  of  a  nation,  &c.  never  remain  in  ignorance 
for  want  of  asking. 

Many  a  person  had  arrived  at  some  considerable  de- 
gree of  knowledge,  if  he  had  not  been  full  of  self-con- 
ceit, and  imagined  that  he  had  known  enough  already, 
or  else  was  ashamed  to  let  others  know  that  he  was 
unacquainted  with  it.  God  and  man  are  ready  to  teach 
the  meekj  the  humble,  and  the  ignorant;  but  he  that 


84  OF  CONVERSATION. 

fancies  himself  to  know  any  particular  subject  well, 
or  that  will  not  venture  to  ask  a  question  about  it,  such 
a  one  will  nut  put  himself  into  the  way  of  improvement 
by  inquiry  and  diligence.  A  fool  may  be  "•  wiser  in  his 
own  conceit  than  ten  men  who  can  render  a  reason;" 
and  such  a  one  is  very  likely  to  be  an  everlastiriir  fool; 
and  perhaps  also  it  is  a  silly  shame  renders  his  folly  in- 
curable. 

Stultorum  incurata  pudor  malus  ulcera  celat. 

Hor.  Epist.  16.  Lib.  i. 

In  English  thus: 

If  fools  have  ulcers,  and  their  pride  conceal  them, 
They  must  have  ulcers  still,  for  none  can  heal  them. 

XV.  Be  not  too  forward,  especially  in  the  younger 
part  of  life,  to  determine  any  question  in  company 
with  an  infallible  and  peremptory  sentence,  nor  speak 
with  assuming-  airs,  and  with  a  decisive  tone  of  voice. 
A  young  man,  in  the  presence  of  his  elders,  should 
rather  hear  and  attend,  and  weigh  the  arguments  which 
are  brougiit  for  the  proof  or  refutation  of  any  doubtful 
proposition:  and  when  it  is  your  turn  to  speak,  propose 
your  thoughts  rather  in  tiie  way  of  inquiry.  By  this 
means  your  mind  will  be  kept  in  a  fitter  temper  to  re- 
ceive truth,  and  j-ou  will  be  more  ready  to  correct  and 
improve  your  own  sentiments,  where  you  have  not  been 
too  positive  in  affirming  them.  But  if  you  have  magis- 
terially decided  tlie  point,  you  will  find  a  secret  unwil- 
lingness to  retract,  though  you  should  feel  an  inward 
conviction  that  you  were  in  the  wrong. 

XVI.  It  is  granted,  indeed,  that  a  season  may  hap- 
pen, when  some  bold  pretender  to  science  may  assume 
haught}'^  and  positive  airs,  to  assert  and  vindicate  a  gross 
and  dangerous  error,  or  to  renounce  and  vilify  some 
very  important  truth:  and  if  he  has  a  popular  talent  of 
talking,  and  there  be  no  remonstrance  made  against  him, 
the  company  may  be  tempted  too  easily  to  give  their 
assent  to  the  imprudence  and  infallibility  of  the  pre- 
sumer.  They  may  imagine  a  proposition  so  much  vili- 
fied can  never  be  true,  and  tliat  a  doctrine  whicli  is  so 
boldly  censured  and  renounced  can  never  be  defended. 


k 


OF    CONVERSATION.  85 

Weak  minds  are  too  ready  to  persuade  themselves,  that 
a  man  would  never  talk  witii  su  mucli  assurance  unless 
he  were  certainly  in  the  right,  and  could  well  maintain 
and  prove  what  lie  said.  By  this  means  truth  itself  is 
in  danger  of  being  betrayed  or  lost,  if  there  be  no  oppo- 
sition made  to  such  a  pretending  talker. 

Now  in  such  a  case,  even  a  wise  and  a  modest  man 
may  assume  airs  too,  and  repel  insolence  with  its  own 
weapons.  There  is  a  time,  as  Solomon,  the  wisest  of 
men,  teaches  us,  "  when  a  fool  should  be  answered  ac- 
cording to  his  folly,  lest  he  be  wise  in  his  own  conceit," 
and  lest  others  too  easily  yield  up  their  faith  and  reason 
to  his  miperious  dictates.  Courage  and  positivity  are 
never  more  necessary  than  on  such  an  occasion.  But 
it  is  good  to  join  some  argument  with  them  of  real  and 
convincing  force,  and  let  it  be  strongly  pronounced  too. 

When  such  a  resistance  is  made,  you  shall  find  some 
of  those  bold  talkers  will  draw  in  their  horns,  when 
their  fierce  and  feeble  pushes  against  truth  and  reason 
are  repelled  with  pushing  and  confidence.  It  is  pity  in- 
deed that  truth  should  ever  need  such  sort  of  defences; 
but  we  know  that  a  triumphant  assurance  hatli  sou)e- 
tinies  supported  gross  falsehoods,  and  a  whole  company 
have  been  captivated  to  error  by  this  means,  till  some 
man  with  equal  assurance  has  rescued  them.  It  is  pity 
that  any  momentous  point  of  doctrine  should  happen 
to  fall  under  such  reproaches,  and  require  such  a  mode 
of  vindication:  though  if  I  happen  to  hear  it,  I  ought 
not  to  turn  my  back  and  to  sneak  otF  in  silence,  and 
leave  the  truth  to  lie  baliled,  bleeding,  and  slain.  Yet 
I  must  confess,  I  should  be  glad  to  have  no  occasion  ever 
given  me  to  figlit  with  any  man  at  this  sort  of  weapons, 
even  though  1  should  be  so  happy  as  to  silence  his  in- 
solence and  to  obtain  an  evident  victory. 

XVII.  Be  not  fond  of  disputing  every  thing  pro  and 
con,  nor  indulge  yourself  to  show  your  talent  of  attack- 
ing and  defending.  A  logic  which  teaches  nothing  else 
is  little  worth.  This  temper  and  practice  will  lead  you 
just  so  fir  out  of  the  way  of  knowledge,  and  divert  your 
honest  inquiry  after  the  truth  which  is  debated  or  sought. 
In  set  disputes,  every  little  straw  is  often  laid  hold  on 
8 


eb  OF  CONVERSATION. 

to  support  our  own  cause;  every  thing  tliat  can  be  drawn 
in  any  way  to  give  colour  to  our  argument  is  advanced, 
and  that  perhaps  with  vanity  and  ostentation.  This 
puts  the  mind  out  of  a  proper  posture  to  seek  and  re- 
ceive the  truth. 

XVIII.  Do  not  bring  a  warm  party  spirit  into  a  free 
conversation  which  is  designed  for  mutual  improvement 
in  the  search  of  truth.  Take  heed  of  allowing  yourself 
in  those  self-satisfied  assurances  which  keep  the  doors 
of  the  understanding  barred  fast  against  the  admission 
of  any  new  sentiments.  Let  your  soul  be  ever  ready  to 
hearken  to  farther  discoveries,  from  a  constant  and  rul- 
ing consciousness  of  our  present  fallible  and  imperfect 
state;  and  make  it  appear  to  your  friends,  that  it  is  no 
hard  task  to  you  to  learn  and  pronounce  those  little 
words,  "  I  was  mistaken,"  how  hard  soever  it  be  for  the 
bulk  of  mankind  to  pronounce  them. 

XIX.  As  you  may  sometimes  raise  inquiries  for  your 
own  instruction  and  improvement,  and  draw  out  the 
learning,  wisdom,  and  fine  sentiments  of  your  friends, 
who  perhaps  may  be  too  reserved  or  modest;  so,  at  other 
times,  if  you  perceive  a  person  unskilful  in  the  matter 
of  debate,  you  may,  by  questions  aptly  proposed  in  the 
Socratic  method,  lead  him  into  a  clearer  knowledge  of 
the  subject:  then  you  become  his  instructor,  in  such  a 
manner  as  may  not  appear  to  make  yourself  his  superior. 

XX.  Take  heed  of  aftecting  always  to  shine  in  com- 
pany above  the  rest,  and  to  display  the  riches  of  your 
own  understanding  or  your  oratory,  as  though  you  would 
render  yourself  admirable  to  all  that  are  present.  This 
is  seldom  well  taken  in  polite  company;  much  less  should 
you  use  such  forms  of  speech  as  should  insinuate  the 
ignorance  or  dulness  of  those  with  whom  you  converse. 

XXI.  Though  you  should  not  affect  to  flourish  in  a 
copious  harangue  and  a  diffusive  style  in  company,  yet 
neitlier  should  you  rudely  interrupt  and  reproach  him 
that  happens  to  use  it:  but  when  he  has  done  speaking, 
reduce  his  sentiments  into  a  more  contracted  form;  not 
with  a  show  of  correcting,  but  as  one  who  is  doubtful 
whether  you  hit  upon  his  true  sense  or  no.  Thus  matters 
may  be  brought  more  easily  from  a  wild  confusion  into 


OF   CONVERSATION.  87 

a  single  point,  qu-^stions  may  be  sooner  determined,  and 
difficulties  more  easily  removed. 

XXII.  Be  not  so  ready  to  charge  ignorance,  prejudice, 
and  mistake  upon  otiiers,  as  you  are  to  suspect  yourself 
of  it:  and  in  order  to  show  how  free  you  are  from  preju- 
dices, learn  to  bear  contradiction  with  patience;  let  it  be 
easy  to  you  to  hear  your  own  opinion  strongly  opposed, 
especially  in  matters  which  are  doubtful  and  disputable, 
amongst  men  of  sobriety  and  virtue.  Give  a  patient 
hearing  to  arguments  on  all  sides;  otherwise,  you  give 
the  company  occasion  to  suspect  that  it  is  not  the  evi- 
dence of  truth  has  led  you  into  this  opinion,  but  some 
lazy  anticipation  ofjudgment,  some  beloved  presumption, 
some  long  and  rash  possession  of  a  party  scheme,  in 
which  you  desire  to  rest  undisturbed.  If  your  assent 
has  been  established  upon  just  and  sufficient  grounds, 
why  should  you  be  afraid  to  let  the  truth  be  put  to  the 
trial  of  argument.'' 

XXII I.  Banish  utterly  out  of  all  conversation,  and 
especially  out  of  all  learned  and  intellectual  conference, 
every  thing  tliat  tends  to  provoke  passion  or  raise  a  fire 
in  tlie  blood.  Let  no  sharp  language,  no  noisy  excla- 
mations, no  sarcasms,  or  biting  jests  be  heard  among 
you;  no  perverse  or  invidious  consequences  be  drawn 
from  each  other's  opinions,  and  imputed  to  the  person: 
let  there  be  no  wilful  perversion  of  another's  meaning; 
no  sudden  seizure  of  a  lapsed  syllable  to  play  upon  it, 
nor  any  abused  construction  of  an  innocent  mistake: 
suffiir  not  your  tongue  to  insult  a  modest  opponent  that 
beigns  to  yield;  let  there  be  no  crowing  and  triumph, 
even  where  there  is  evident  victory  on  your  side.  All 
these  things  are  enemies  to  friendship,  and  the  ruin  of 
free  conversation.  The  impartial  search  of  truth  re- 
quires all  calmness  and  serenity,  all  temper  and  candour; 
mutual  instructions  can  never  be  attained  in  tiie  midst 
of  passion,  pride,  and  clamour,  unless  we  suppose,  in  the 
midst  of  such  a  scene,  there  is  a  loud  and  penetrating 
lecture  read  by  botii  sides,  on  the  folly  and  shameful  in- 
firmities of  human  nature. 

XXIV.  Whensoever,  therefore,  any  unhappy  word 
shall  arise  in  company,  that  might  give  you  a  reasonable 


88  OF  CONVERSATION. 

disgust,  quash  the  rising  resentment,  be  it  ever  so  just, 
and  command  your  soul  and  your  tongue  into  silence, 
lest  you  cancel  the  hopes  of  all  improvement  for  that 
hour,  and  transform  the  learned  conversation  into  the 
mean  and  vulgar  form  of  reproaches  and  railing.  The 
man  who  began  to  break  the  peace  in  snch  a  society, 
will  fall  under  the  shame  and  conviction  of  such  a  silent 
reproof,  if  he  has  any  thing  ingenuous  about  him.  If 
this  should  not  be  sufficient,  let  a  grave  admonition,  or 
a  soft  and  gentle  turn  of  wit,  with  an  air  of  pleasantry, 
give  the  warm  disputer  an  occasion  to  stop  the  progress 
of  his  indecent  fire,  if  not  to  retract  the  indecency  and 
quench  the  flame. 

XXV.  Inure  yourself  to  a  candid  and  obliging  manner 
in  your  conversation,  and  acquire  the  art  of  pleasing  ad- 
dress, even  when  you  teach,  as  well  as  when  you  learn; 
and  when  you  oppose,  as  well  as  when  you  assert  or 
prove.  This  degree  of  politeness  is  not  to  be  attained 
without  a  diligent  attention  to  such  kind  of  directions 
as  are  here  laid  down,  and  a  frequent  exercise  and  prac- 
tice of  them. 

XXVI.  If  you  would  know  what  sort  of  companions 
you  should  select  for  the  cultivation  and  advantage  of 
the  mind,  the  general  rule  is,  choose  such  as,  by  their 
brightness  of  parts,  and  their  diligence  in  study,  or  by 
their  superior  advancement  in  learning,  or  peculiar  ex- 
cellency in  any  art,  science,  or  accomplishment,  divine 
or  human,  may  be  capable  of  administering  to  your  im- 
provement; and  be  sure  to  maintain  and  keep  some  due 
regard  to  their  moral  character  always,  lest  while  you 
wander  in  quest  of  intellectual  gain,  you  fall  into  the 
contagion  of  irreligion  and  vice.  No  wise  man  can 
venture  into  a  house  infected  with  the  plague,  in  order 
to  see  the  finest  collections  of  any  virtuoso  in  Europe. 

XXVII.  Nor  is  it  every  sober  person  of  your  acquaint- 
ance, no,  nor  every  man  of  bright  parts,  or  rich  in  learn- 
ing, that  is  fit  to  engage  in  free  conversation  for  the  in- 
quiry after  truth.  Let  a  person  have  ever  so  illustrious 
talents,  yet  he  is  not  a  proper  associate  for  such  a  pur- 
pose, if  he  lie  under  any  of  the  following  infirmities: 

1.  If  he  be  exceedingly  reserved,  and  hath  either 


OF  CONVERSATION.  89 

no  inclination  to  discourse,  or  no  tolerable  capacity  of 
speech  and  language  for  the  communication  of  his  senti- 
ments. 

2.  If  he  be  liaughty  and  proud  of  his  knowledge,  im- 
perious in  his  airs,  and  is  always  fond  of  imposing  his 
sentiments  on  all  the  company. 

3.  If  he  be  positive  and  dogmatical  in  his  own  opin- 
ions, and  will  dispute  to  the  end;  if  he  will  resist  tiie 
brightest  evidence  of  truth,  rather  than  suffer  himself 
to  be  overcome,  or  3'ield  to  the  plainest  and  strongest 
reasonings. 

4.  If  he  be  one  who  always  affects  to  outshine  all  the 
company,  and  delights  to  hear  himself  talk  and  flourish 
upon  a  subject,  and  make  long  harangues,  while  the  rest 
must  be  all  silent  and  attentive. 

0.  If  he  be  a  person  of  whiffling  and  unsteady  turn  of 
mind,  who  cannot  keep  close  to  a  point  of  controversy, 
but  wanders  from  it  perpetually,  and  is  always  solicitous 
to  say  something,  whether  it  bo  pertinent  to  the  question 
or  no. 

6.  If  he  be  fretful  and  peevish,  and  given  to  resent- 
ment upon  all  occasions:  if  he  knows  not  how  to  bear 
contradiction,  or  is  ready  to  take  things  in  a  wrong 
sense;  if  he  is  swift  to  feel  a  supposed  offence,  or  to  im- 
agine himself  affronted,  and  then  break  out  into  a  sudden 
passion,  or  retain  silent  and  sullen  wrath. 

7.  If  he  aflect  wit  on  all  occasions,  and  is  full  of  his 
conceits  and  puns,  quirks  or  quibbles,  jests  and  repartees; 
these  may  agreeably  entertain  and  animate  an  hour  of 
mirth,  but  they  have  no  place  in  the  searcli  after  truth. 

8.  If  he  carry  always  about  him  a  sort  of  craft,  and 
cunning,  and  disguise,  and  act  rather  like  a  spy  than  a 
friend.  Have  a  care  of  sucli  a  one  as  will  make  an  ill 
use  of  freedom  in  conversation,  and  immediately  charge 
heresy  upon  you,  when  you  happen  to  difler  from  those 
sentiments  whicli  authority  or  custom  has  established. 

In  short,  you  should  avoid  tiie  man,  in  such  select 
conversation,  who  practises  any  thing  tliat  is  unbecom- 
ing tlie  character  of  a  sincere,  free,  and  open  searcher 
after  truth. 

Now,  though  you  may  pay  all  the  relative  duties  of 
8* 


90  OF    CONVERSATION. 

life  to  persons  of  these  unhappy  qualifications,  and  treat 
them  with  decency  and  love,  so  far  as  religion  and  hu- 
manity oblige  you,  yet  take  care  uf  entering  into  a  free 
debate  on  matters  of  trutii  or  falsehood  in  tlieir  company, 
and  especially  about  the  principles  of  religion.  I  con- 
fess, if  a  person  of  such  a  temper  happens  to  judge  and 
talk  well  on  such  a  subject,  you  may  hear  him  with  at- 
tention, and  derive  what  profit  you  can  from  his  dis- 
course; but  he  is  by  no  means  to  be  chosen  for  a  free 
conference  in  matters  of  learning  and  knowledge. 

XXVIII.  While  I  would  persuade  you  to  beware  of 
such  persons,  and  abstain  from  too  much  freedom  of 
discourse  amongst  them,  it  is  very  natural  to  infer  that 
you  should  watch  against  the  working  of  these  evil 
qualities  in  your  own  breast,  if  you  Imppen  to  be  tainted 
with  any  of  them  yourself.  Men  of  learning  and  inge- 
nuity will  justly  avoid  your  acquaintance,  when  they 
find  such  an  unhappy  and  unsocial  temper  prevailing 
in  you. 

XXIX.  To  conclude,  when  you  retire  from  company, 
then  converse  with  yourself  in  solitude,  and  inquire  what 
you  have  learned  for  the  improvement  of  ymir  under- 
standing, or  for  the  rectifying  your  inclinations,  for  tlie 
increase  of  your  virtues,  or  tlie  ameliorating  your  con- 
duct and  behaviour  in  any  future  parts  of  life.  If  you 
have  seen  some  of  your  company  candid,  modest,  h'um- 
ble  in  their  manner,  wise  and  sagacious,  just  and  pious 
in  their  sentiments,  polite  and  graceful,  as  well  as  clear 
and  strong  in  their  expression,  and  universally  accepta- 
ble and  lovely  in  their  behavio^ir,  endeavour  to  impress 
the  idea  of  all  these  upon  your  memory,  and  treasure 
them  up  for  your  imitation. 

XXX.  If  th.e  laws  of  reason,  decency,  and  civility,  have 
not  been  well  observed  amongst  your  associates,  take 
notice  of  those  defects  for  your  own  improvement:  and 
from  every  occurrence  of  this  kind  remark  something 
to  imitate  or  to  avoid,  in  elegant,  polite,  and  useful  con- 
versation. Perhaps  you  will  find  that  some  persons 
present  have  really  displeased  the  company,  by  an  ex- 
cessive and  too  visible  an  affectation  to  please,  i.  e.  hj 
giving  loose  to  servile  flattery  or  promiscuous  praisej 


OF    CONVERSATION.  9] 

while  others  were  as  ready  to  oppose  and  contradict  every 
thing  that  was  said.  Some  have  deserved  just  censure 
for  a  morose  and  affected  taciturnity;  and  others  have 
been  anxious  and  careful  lest  their  silence  should  be  in- 
terpreted a  want  of  sense,  and  therefore  they  have  ven- 
tured to  make  speeches,  though  they  had  nothing  to 
say  which  was  worth  hearing.  Perhaps  you  will  ob- 
serve tliat  one  was  ingenious  in  his  thoughts,  and  bright 
in  his  language,  but  he  was  so  topful  of  himself  that  ho 
let  it  spill  on  all  the  company;  that  he  spoke  well  indeed, 
but  that  he  spoke  too  long,  and  did  not  allow  equal 
liberty  or  time  to  his  associates.  You  will  remark  that 
another  was  full  charged,  to  let  out  his  v^^ords  before  his 
friend  had  done  speaking,  or  impatient  of  the  least  oppo- 
sition to  any  thing  he  said.  You  will  remember  that 
some  persons  have  talked  at  large,  and  with  great  con- 
fidence, of  things  which  they  understood  not,  and 
others  counted  every  thing  tedious  and  intolerable  that 
was  spoken  upon  subjects  out  of  their  sphere,  and  they 
would  fain  confine  the  conference  entirely  within  the 
limits  of  their  own  narrow  knowledge  and  study.  The 
errors  of  conversation  are  almost  infinite. 

XXXI.  By  a  review  of  such  irregularities  as  these, 
you  may  learn  to  avoid  those  follies  and  pieces  of  ill 
conduct  which  spoil  good  conversation,  or  make  it  less 
agreeable  and  less  useful;  and  by  degrees  you  will  ac- 
quire that  delightful  and  easy  manner  of  address  and  be- 
haviour in  all  useful  correspondencies,  which  may  ren- 
der your  company  every  where  desired  and  beloved;  and 
at  the  same  time,  among  the  best  of  your  companions, 
you  may  make  the  highest  improvement,  in  your  own 
intellectual  acquisitions,  that  the  discourse  of  mortal 
creatures  will  allow,  under  all  our  disadvantages  in  tliis 
sorry  state  of  mortality.  But  there  is  a  day  coming 
when  we  shall  be  seized  away  from  this  lower  class  in 
the  scliool  of  knowledge,  where  we  labour  under  the 
many  dangers  and  darknesses,  the  errors  and  the  incum- 
brances of  flesh  and  blood,  and  our  conversation  shall  be 
with  angels  and  more  illuminated  spirits,  in  the  upper 
regions  of  the  universe. 


92  OF    DISPUTES    IN    GENERAL. 


CHAPTER  X. 

OF  DISPUTES  IN  GENERAL. 

I.  Under  the  g^eneral  head  of  conversation  for  the 
improvement  of  the  mind,  we  may  rank  the  practice  of 
disputing;  that  is,  when  two  or  more  persons  appear  to 
maintain  different  sentiments,  and  defend  their  own  or 
oppose  the  other's  opinion,  in  alternate  discourse,  by  some 
methods  of  argument. 

II.  As  these  disputes  often  arise  in  good  earnest, 
where  the  two  contenders  do  really  believe  the  different 
propositions  which  they  support;  so  sometimes  they  are 
appointed  as  mere  trials  of  skill  in  academies  or  schools 
by  the  students;  sometimes  they  are  practised,  and  that 
with  apparent  fervour,  in  courts  of  judicature  by  law- 
yers, in  order  to  gain  the  fees  of  their  different  clients, 
while  both  sides  perhaps  are  really  of  the  same  senti- 
ment with  regard  to  the  cause  which  is  tried. 

III.  In  common  conversation,  disputes  are  often  man- 
aged without  any  forms  of  regularity  or  order,  and  they 
turn  to  good  or  evil  purposes,  chiefly  according  to  the 
temper  of  the  disputants.  Tliey  may  sometimes  be  suc- 
cessful to  search  out  truth,  sometimes  elTectual  to  main- 
tain truth,  and  convince  the  mistaken;  but  at  other  times 
a  dispute  is  a  mere  scene  of  battle  in  order  to  victory 
and  vain  triumph. 

IV.  There  are  some  few  general  rules  whic'i  slionld 
be  ol)served  in  all  debates  whatsoever,  if  we  would  find 
out  truth  by  tliem,  or  convince  a  friend  of  liis  error,  even 
though  they  be  not  managed  according  to  any  settled 
forms  of  disputation;  and  as  there  are  almost  as  many 
opinions  and  judgments  of  things  as  there  are  persons, 
so  when  several  persons  happen  to  meet  and  confer  to- 
gether upon  any  subject,  tliey  are  ready  to  declare  their 
different  sentiments,  and  support  them  by  such  reason- 
ings as  they  are  capable  of  This  is  called  debating  or 
disputing,  as  is  above  described. 

V  When  persons  begin  a  debate,  they  should  always 
take  care  that  they  are  agreed  in  some  general  princi- 
ples or  propositions,  which  either  more  nearly  or  remote- 


OF  DISPUTES  IN  GENERAL.  93 

ly  affect  the  question  in  hand;  for  otherwise  they  have 
no  foundation  or  hope  of  convincing  eacli  other;  they 
must  have  some  common  ground  to  stand  upon,  while 
they  maintain  the  contest. 

When  they  find  they  agree  in  some  remote  proposi- 
tions, then  let  tliem  search  farther,  and  inquire  how  near 
they  approach  to  each  other's  sentiments,  and  whatso- 
ever propositions  tliey  agree  in,  let  tliese  lay  a  founda- 
tion for  the  mutual  hope  of  conviction.  Hereby  you 
will  be  prevented  from  running  at  every  turn  to  some 
original  and  remote  propositions  and  axioms,  which 
practice  both  entangles  and  prolongs  dispute.  As  for 
instance,  if  there  was  a  debate  proposed  betwixt  a  pro- 
testant  and  a  papist,  whether  there  be  such  a  place  as 
Purgatory.'  Let  them  remember  that  they  both  agree  in 
this  point,  that  Christ  has  made  satisfaction  or  atone- 
ment for  sin,  and  upon  this  ground  let  them  both  stand, 
while  they  search  out  tlie  controverted  doctrine  of  Pur- 
gatory by  way  of  cojiference  or  debate, 

VI.  1'lie  question  should  be  cleared  from  all  doubtful 
terms  and  needless  additions;  and  all  things  tliat  belong 
to  the  question  sliould  be  expressed  in  plain  and  intelli- 
gible languaij-e.  This  is  so  necessary  a  thing,  that  with- 
out it  men  will  be  exposed  to  such  sort  of  ridiculous  con- 
tests as  was  found  one  day  between  the  two  unlearned 
combatants  Sartor  and  Sutor,  wlio  assaulted  and  defend- 
ed the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  with  much  zeal 
and  violence:  but  Latino  happening  to  come  into  their 
company,  and  inquiring  the  subject  of  their  dispute, 
asked  each  of  them  what  he  meant  by  that  long  hard 
word  transubstantiation.  Sutor  readily  informed  him 
that  lie  understood — bowing  at  the  name  of  Jesus:  but 
Sartor  assured  liim  that  he  meant  nothing  but  bowing 
at  tlie  higli  altar.  "No  wonder,  then,"  said  Latino, 
"  that  you  cannot  agree  when  you  neither  understand 
one  anotlier,  nor  the  word  about  which  you  contend." 
I  think  the  whole  family  of  the  Sartors  and  Sutors 
would  be  wiser  if  they  avoided  such  kind  of  debates  till 
they  understood  the  terms  better.  But  alas!  even  their 
wives  carry  on  such  conferences:  the  other  day  one  was 
heard  in  the  street  explaining  to  her  less  learned  neigli- 


94  OF    DISPUTES  IN  GENERAL. 

bour  the  meaning  of  metaphysical  science;  and  she  as- 
sured her,  that  as  physics  were  medicines  fijr  the  body, 
so  metapliysics  were  physics  for  the  soul;  upon  this  they 
went  on  to  dispute  the  point — how  far  the  divine  excel- 
led the  doctor. 

Audilum  admissi  risum  teneatis,  amici? 

Rideiitcm  dicere  verutnquid  vetat? 

Can  it  be  faulty  to  repeat 

A  dialogue  that  walk'd  the  street' 

Or  can  my  gravest  friends  forbear 

A  laugh,  when  such  disputes  they  hear? 

VII.  And  not  only  the  sense  and  meaning  of  the 
words  used  in  the  question  should  be  settled  and  adjust- 
ed between  the  disputants,  but  the  precise  point  of  in- 
quiry should  be  distinctly  fixed;  the  question  in  debate 
should  be  limited  precisely  to  its  special  extent,  or  de- 
clared to  be  taken  in  its  more  general  sense.  As  for  in- 
stance, if  two  men  are  contending  whetlier  civil  govern- 
ment be  of  divine  right  or  not:  here  it  must  be  observed, 
the  question  is  not  whether  monarchy  in  one  man,  or  a 
republic  in  multitudes  of  the  people,  or  an  aristocracy 
in  a  few  of  the  chief,  is  appointed  of  God  as  necessary; 
but  whether  civil  government  in  its  most  general  sense, 
or  in  any  form  whatsoever,  is  derived  from  the  will  and 
appointment  of  God.  Again,  the  point  of  inquiry  should 
be  limited  further.  Thus  the  question  is,  not  whether 
government  comes  from  the  will  of  God  by  the  liglit  of 
divine  revelation,  for  that  is  granted;  but  whether  it  is 
derived  from  the  will  of  God  by  the  liglit  of  reason  too. 
This  sort  of  specification  or  limitation  of  the  question 
hinders  and  prevents  the  disputants  from  wandering 
away  from  the  precise  point  of  inquiry. 

It  is  tliis  trifling  humour  or  dishonest  artifice  of  chang- 
ing the  question,  and  wandering  away  from  the  first 
point  of  debate,  which  gives  endless  length  to  disputes, 
and  causes  both  disputants  to  part  without  any  satisfac- 
tion. And  one  chief  occasion  of  it  is  this:  when  one  of 
the  combatants  feels  his  cause  run  low  and  fail,  and  is 
just  ready  to  be  confuted  and  demolislied,  he  is  tempted 
to  step  aside  to  avoid  tlie  blow,  and  betakes  him  to  a  dif- 
ferent question:  thus,  if  his  adversary  be  not  well  aware 


OF  DISPCTES  IK  GF.KERAL.  95 

i.'f  him,  he  begins  to  entrench  himself  in  a  now  fastness, 
and  holds  out  tiie  siege  with,  a  new  artillery  of  thoughts 
nd  words.  It  is  the  pride  of  man  which  is  the  spring 
if  this  evil,  and  an  unwillingness  to  yield  up  their  own 
tpinions  even  to  be  overcome  by  tru^h  itself. 

VIII.  Keep  this  always  theretore  upon  your  mind  as 
an  everlasting  rule  of  conduct  in  your  debates  to  find 
out  truth,  tliat  a  resolute  design,  or  even  a  warm  affec- 
tation of  victory,  is  the  bane  of  all  real  improvement, 
and  an  etiectual  bar  against  t!ie  admission  of  the  truth 
which  you  profess  to  seek.  This  works  witii  a  secret, 
but  a  powerful  and  mischievous  influence  in  every  dis- 
pute, unless  we  are  much  upon  our  guard.  It  appears 
in  frequent  conversation;  every  age,  every  sex,  and  each 
party  of  mankind,  are  so  fond  of  being  in  the  rigiit,  that 
ti)ey  kiiov,-  not  how  to  renounce  this  unhappy  prejudice, 
this  vain  love  of  victory. 

When  truth  with  briglit  evidence  is  ready  to  break  in 
upon  a  disputant,  and  to  overcome  his  objei'tions  and 
mistakes,  how  swit't  and  ready  is  the  mind  to  engage 
wit  and  fancy,  craft  and  subtlety,  to  cloud  and  perplex 
and  puzzle  the  truth,  if  possible!  How  eager  is  lie  to 
throw  in  some  impertinent  question  to  divert  from  the 
main  subjeetl  How  swit\  to  take  hold  of  some  occasion- 
al word,  thereby  to  lead  the  discourse  ori' from  the  point 
in  hand!  So  much  atraid  is  human  nature  of  parting  with 
its  errors,  and  being  overcome  b}-  truth.  Just  thus  a 
hunted  hare  calls  up  all  the  shifts  tliat  nature  hath 
taught  her:  she  treads  back  her  mazes,  crosses  and  con- 
founds her  former  track,  and  uses  all  possible  methods 
to  divert  the  scent,  when  slie  is  in  danger  of  being  seiz- 
ed and  taken.  Let  puss  practise  what  nature  teaciies; 
but  would  one  imagine  that  any  rational  being  should 
take  such  pains  to  avoid  truth,  and  to  escape  tiie  im- 
provement of  its  understanding.^ 

IX.  When  you  come  to  a  dispute  in  order  to  find  out 
truth,  do  not  presume  that  you  are  certainly  possessed 
of  it  beforehand.  Enter  the  "debate  with  a  sincere  design 
of  yielding  to  reason,  on  which  side  soever  it  appears. 
Use  no  subtle  arts  to  cloud  and  entangle  the  question; 
hide  not  yourself  in  doubtful  words  and  phrases;  do  not 


96  OF  DISPUTES  IN  GENERAL. 

affect  little  shifts  and  subterfuges  to  avoid  the  force  of 
an  argument;  take  a  generous  pleasure  to  espy  the  first 
rising  beams  of  trutli,  though  it  be  on  the  side  of  your 
opponent;  endeavour  to  remc  ve  the  little  obscurities  that 
hang  about  it,  and  suffer  and  encourage  it  to  break  out 
into  open  and  convincing  light;  that  while  your  opponent 
perhaps  may  gain  the  better  of  your  reasonings,  yet  you 
yourself  may  triumph  over  error;  and  I  am  sure  that  is 
a  much  more  valuable  acquisition  and  victory. 

X.  Watch  narrowly  in  every  dispute,  that  your  oppo- 
nent does  not  lead  you  unwarily  to  grant  some  principle 
of  the  proposition,  which  will  bring  with  it  a  fatal  con- 
sequence, and  lead  you  insensibly  into  his  sentiment, 
though  it  be  far  astray  from  the  truth;  and  by  this  wrong 
step  you  will  be,  as  it  were,  plunged  into  dangerous 
errors  before  you  are  aware.  Polonides,  in  free  conver- 
sation, led  Incauto  to  agree  with  him  in  this  plain  pro- 
position: That  the  blessed  God  has  too  much  justice  in 
any  case  to  punish*  any  being  who  is  in  itself  innocent: 
till  he  not  only  allowed  it  with  an  unthinking  alacrity, 
but  asserted  it  in  most  universal  and  unguarded  terms. 
A  little  after,  Polonides  came  in  discourse  to  commend 
the  virtues,  the  innocence,  and  the  piety  of  our  blessed 
Saviour;  and  thence  inferred,  it  was  impossible  that  God 
should  ever  punish  so  holy  a  person,  who  was  never 
guilty  of  any  crime:  then  Incauto  espied  the  snare,  and 
found  himself  robbed  and  defrauded  of  tlie  great  doctrine 
of  tlie  atonement  by  the  death  of  Christ,  upon  which 
he  had  placed  his  immortal  hopes  according  to  the  gos- 
pel. This  taught  him  to  bethink  himself  what  a  dan- 
gerous concession  he  had  made  in  so  universal  a  manner, 
that  God  would  never  punish  any  being  who  was  inno- 
cent; and  he  saw  it  needful  to  recall  his  words,  or  to  ex- 
plain them  better,  by  adding  this  restrictioa  or  limita- 
tion, viz.  unless  this  innocent  being  were  some  way  in- 
volved in  another's  sin,  or  stood  as  a  voluntary  surety 
for  the  guilty:  by  this  limitation  he  secured  the  great 
and  olessed  doctrine  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  for  the  sins 

*  The  word  punish  here  signifies,  to  bring  some  natural  evil  upon 
a  person  on  account  of  moral  evil  done. 


OF  DISPUTES  IN  GENERAL.  97 

of  men,  and  learnt  to  be  more  cautious  in  his  conces- 
sions for  the  time  to  come. 

Two  months  ago  Fatalio  had  ahnost  tempted  his 
friend  Fidens  to  leave  oti'  prayer,  and  to  abandon  his 
dependence  on  the  providence  of  God  in  the  common 
affairs  of  life,  by  obtaining  of  him  a  concession  of  the 
like  kind.  Is  it  not  evident  to  reason,  says  Fatalio,  that 
God''s  immense  scheme  of  transactions  in  the  universe 
was  contrived  and  determined  long  before  you  and  I 
were  born?  Can  you  imagine,  my  dear  Fi-dens,  that  the 
blessed  God  changes  liis  original  contrivances,  and 
m^es  new  interruptions  in  tlie  course  of  them,  so  often 
as  you  and  I  want  his  aid,  to  prevent  the  little  accidents 
of  life,  or  to  guard  us  from  them?  Can  you  suffer  your- 
self to  be  persuaded  that  the  great  Creator  of  this  world 
takes  care  to  support  a  bridge  which  was  quite  rotten, 
and  to  make  it  stand  firm  a  iew  minutes  longer  till  you 
had  rode  over  it?  Or,  will  he  uphold  a  falling  tower, 
while  we  two  were  passing  by  it,  that  such  worms  as 
you  and  I  are  might  escape  the  ruin? 

But  you  say,  you  prayed  for  his  protection  in  the 
morning,  and  he  certainly  hears  prayer.  I  grant  he 
hears  it:  but  are  you  so  fond  and  weak,  said  he,  as  to 
suppose  that  the  universal  Lord  of  all  had  such  a  regard 
to  a  word  or  two  of  your  breath,  as  to  make  alterations 
in  his  own  eternal  scheme  upon  that  account.  Nor  is 
there  any  other  way  whereby  his  providence  can  pre- 
serve you  in  answer  to  prayer,  but  by  creating  such  per- 
petual interruptions  and  changes  in  his  own  conduct, 
according  to  your  daily  behaviour. 

I  acknowledge,  says  Fidens,  there  is  no  other  way  to 
secure  the  doctrine  of  divine  providence  in  all  these 
common  affairs;  and  therefore  I  begin  to  doubt  whether 
God  does  or  ever  will  exert  himself  so  particularly  in 
our  little  concerns. 

Have  a  care,  good  Fidens,  that  you  yield  not  too  fan 
take  heed  lest  you  have  granted  too  much  to  Fatalio. 
Pray  let  me  ask  of  you,  could  not  the  great  God,  who 
grasps  and  surveys  all  future  and  distant  things  in  one 
single  view,  could  not  he  from  the  beginning  foresee  your 
morning  prayer  for  his  protection,  and  appoint  all  second 
9 


98  OF  DISPUTES  IN  GENERAL. 

causes  to  concur  for  tlie  support  of  that  crazy  bridge,  or 
to  make  that  old  tower  stand  firm  till  you  had  escaped 
the  danger?  Or  could  not  he  cause  all  tlie  mediums  to 
work  so  as  to  make  it  fall  before  you  came  near  it?  Can 
he  not  appoint  all  iiis  own  transactions  in  the  universe, 
and  every  event  in  the  natural  world,  in  a  way  of  per- 
fect correspondence  with  his  own  foreknowledge  of  all 
the  events,  actions,  and  appearances  of  the  moral  world 
in  every  part  of  it?  Can  he  not  direct  every  thing  in 
nature,  which  is  but  his  servant,  to  act  in  perfect  agree- 
ment with  his  eternal  prescience  of  our  sins,  or  of  our 
piety?  And  hereby  all  the  glory  of  providence,  and  our 
necessary  dependence  upon  it  by  faith  and  prayer,  are 
as  well  secured,  as  if  he  interposed  to  alter  his  own 
scheme  every  moment. 

Let  me  ask  again;  did  not  he  in  his  own  counsels  or 
decrees  appoint  thunders  and  lightnings  and  earth- 
quakes, to  burn  up  and  destroy  Sodom  and  Gomorrah, 
and  turn  them  into  a  dead  sea,  just  at  the  time  when 
the  iniquities  of  those  cities  were  raised  to  their  supreme 
height?  Did  he  not  ordain  the  fountains  of  the  deep  to 
be  broken  up,  and  overwhelming  rains  to  fall  from 
heaven,  just  wlien  a  guilty  world  deserved  to  be  drown- 
ed; while  he  took  care  of  the-security  of  righteous  Noah, 
by  an  ark  which  should  float  upon  tliat  very  deluge  of 
waters?  Thus  he  can  punish  the  criminal  when  he 
pleases,  and  reward  the  devout  worshipper  in  the  proper 
season  by  his  original  and  eternal  schemes  of  appoint- 
ment, as  well  as  if  he  interposed  every  moment  anew. 
Take  heed,  Fidens,  tliat  you  be  not  tempted  away,  by 
such  sophisms  of  Fatalio,  to  withhold  prayer  from  God, 
and  to  renounce  your  faith  in  his  providence. 

Remember  this  short  and  plain  caution  of  tlie  subtle 
errors  of  men.  Let  a  snake  but  once  tln-ust  in  his  head 
at  some  small  unguarded  fold  of  your  garment,  and  he 
will  insensibly  and  unavoidably  wind  his  whole  body  into 
your  bosom,  and  give  you  a  pernicious  wound. 

XI.  On  the  other  hand,  when  you  have  found  youi 
opponent  make  any  such  concession  as  may  turn  to  your 
real  advantage  in  maintaining  the  truth,  be  wise  and 
watchful  to  observe  it,  and  make  a  happy  improvement 


OF  DISPUTES  IN  GENERAL.  99 

s^f  it.  Rhapsodns  has  taken  a  great  deal  of  pains  to  de- 
tract from  the  lionour  of  Christianity,  by  sly  insinua- 
tions that  the  sacred  writers  are  perpetually  promoting 
virtue  and  piety  by  promises  and  threatenings;  whereas 
neither  the  fear  of  future  punishment,  nor  the  hope  of 
future  reward,  can  possibly  be  called  good  affections,  or 
such  as  are  the  acknowledged  springs  and  sources  of  all 
actions  truly  good.  He  adds  further,  that  this  fear,  or 
this  hope,  ca  nnot  consist  in  reality  with  virtue  or  goodness, 
if  it  either  stands  as  essential  to  any  moral  performance 
or  as  a  considerable  motive  to  any  good  action;  and  thus 
he  would  fiin  lead  Christians  to  be  asliamed  of  the  gos- 
pel of  Christ,  because  of  its  future  and  eternal  promises 
and  threatenings,  as  being  inconsistent  witli  his  notion 
of  virtue;  for  he  supposes  virtue  should  be  so  beloved  and 
practised  for  the  sake  of  its  own  beauty  and  loveliness, 
that  all  other  motives  arising  from  rewards  or  punish- 
ments, fear  or  hope,  do  really  take  away  just  so  much 
from  the  very  nature  of  virtue  as  their  influence  reaches 
to;  and  no  part  of  those  good  practices  are  really  valua- 
ble, but  what  arises  from  the  mere  love  of  virtue  itself, 
without  any  regard  to  punishment  or  reward. 

But  observe,  in  two  pages  afterwards,  he  grants  that 
— this  principle  of  fear  of  future  punishment,  and  hope 
of  future  reward,  how  mercenary  and  servile  soever  it 
may  be  accounted,  is  yet  in  many  circumstances  a  great 
advantage,  security,  and  support  to  virtue;  especially 
where  there  is  danger  of  the  violence  of  rage  or  lust,  or 
any  counter-working  passion  to  control  and  overcome 
the  good  affections  of  the  mind. 

Now  the  rule  and  the  practice  of  Christianity,  or  the 
gospel,  as  it  is  closely  connected  with  future  rewards 
and  punishments,  may  be  well  supported  by  this  con- 
cession. Pray,  Fi  hapsodus,  tell  me,  if  every  man  in  this 
present  life,  by  the  violence  of  some  counter-working 
passion,  may  not  have  his  good  affections  to  virtue  con- 
trolled or  overcome?  May  not,  therefore,  his  eternal 
fears  and  hopes  be  a  great  advantage,  security,  and  sup- 
port to  virtue  in  so  dangerous  a  state  and  situation,  as 
our  journey  through  this  world  towards  a  better.'    And 


100  OF  DISPUTES  IN  GENERAL. 

this  is  all  that  the  defence  of  Christianity  necessarily 
requires. 

And  yet  further  let  me  ask  our  rhapsodist,  If  you  have 
nothing  else,  sir,  but  the  beauty  and  excellency  and 
loveliness  of  virtue  to  preach  and  flourish  upon,  before 
such  sorry  and  degenerate  creatures  as  the  bulk  of  man- 
kind are,  and  you  have  no  future  rewards  or  punish- 
ments with  which  to  address  their  hopes  and  fears,  how 
many  of  these  vicious  wretches  will  you  ever  reclaim 
from  all  their  variety  of  profaneness,  intemperance,  and 
madness?  How  many  have  you  ever  actually  reclaimed 
by  this  smooth  soft  method,  and  these  fine  words?  What 
has  all  that  reasoning  and  rhetoric  done  which  have 
been  displayed  by  your  predecessors  the  heathen  moral- 
ists, upon  this  excellency  and  beauty  of  virtue?  What 
has  it  been  able  to  do  towards  the  reforming  of  a  sinful 
world?  Perhaps  now  and  then  a  man  of  better  natural 
mould  has  been  a  little  refined,  and  perhaps  also  there 
may  liave  been  here  and  there  a  man  restrained  or  re- 
covered from  injustice  or  knavery,  from  drunkenness 
and  lewdness,  and  vile  debaucheries,  by  this  fair  reason- 
ing and  philosophy:  but  have  the  passions  of  revenge 
and  envy,  of  ambition  and  pride,  and  the  inward  secret 
vices  of  the  mind  been  mortified  merely  by  this  philoso- 
phical language?  Have  any  of  these  men  been  made 
new  creatures,  men  of  real  piety  and  love  to  God? 

Go  dress  up  all  the  virtues  of  human  nature  in  all  the 
beauties  of  your  oratory,  and  declaim  aloud  on  the 
praise  of  social  virtue,  and  the  amiable  qualities  of  good- 
ness, till  your  heart  or  your  lungs  ache,  among  tlie  looser 
herds  of  mankind,  and  you  will  ever  find,  as  your  hea- 
then fathers  have  done  before,  that  the  wild  passions  and 
appetites  of  men  are  too  violent  to  be  restrained  by  such 
mild  and  silken  language.  You  may  as  well  build  up 
a  fence  of  straw  and  feathers  to  resist  a  cannon  ball,  or 
try  to  quench  a  flaming  granado  with  a  sliell  of  fair 
water,  as  hope  to  succeed  in  these  attempts.  But  an 
eternal  heaven  and  an  eternal  hell  carry  divine  force 
and  power  with  them:  this  doctrine,  from  the  mouth  of 
Christian  preachers,  has  begun  the  reformation  of  multi- 
tudes; this  gospel  has  recovered  thousands  among  the 


OF    DISPUTES    IN    GENERAL.  101 

nations  from  iniquity  and  death.  They  have  been  awa- 
kened by  these  awful  scenes  to  begin  rehgion,  and  after- 
wards their  virtue  has  improved  itself  into  superior  and 
more  refined  principles  and  habits  by  divine  grace,  and 
risen  to  high  and  eminent  degrees,  though  not  to  a  con- 
summate state.  I'he  blessed  God  knows  human  nature 
much  better  than  Rhapsodus  doth,  and  has  throughout 
his  word  appointed  a  more  proper  and  more  effectual 
method  of  address  to  it  by  the  passions  of  hope  and  fear, 
by  punishments  and  rewards. 

If  you  read  on  four  pages  further  in  these  writings, 
you  will  find  the  autiior  makes  another  concession.  He 
allows  that  the  master  of  a  family,  using  proper  rewards 
and  gentle  punishments  towards  his  children,  leaches 
them  goodness,  and  by  this  help  instructs  them  in  a  virtue 
which  they  afterwards  practise  upon  other  grounds,  and 
without  tliinking  of  a  penalty  or  a  bribe;  and  this,  says 
he,  is  what  we  call  a  liberal  education  and  a  liberal 
service. 

This  new  concession  of  that  author  may  also  be  very 
happily  improved  in  favour  of  Christianity. — What  are 
the  best  of  men  in  this  life'  They  are  by  no  means  per- 
fect in  virtue:  we  are  all  but  children  here  under  the 
great  master  of  the  family,  and  he  is  pleased,  by  hopes 
and  fears,  by  mercies  and  corrections,  to  instruct  us  in 
virtue,  and  to  conduct  us  onward  towards  the  sublimer 
and  more  perfect  practice  of  it  in  the  future  world, 
where  it  shall  be  performed,  as  in  his  own  language, 
perhaps — without  thinking  of  penalties  or  bribes.  And 
since  he  hath  allowed  that  this  conduct  may  be  called  a 
liberal  education,  and  a  liberal  service,  let  Christianity 
then  be  indulged  the  title  of  a  liberal  education  also, 
and  it  is  admirably  fitted  for  such  frail  and  sinful  crea- 
tures, while  they  are  training  up  towards  the  sublimer 
virtues  of  the  heavenly  state. 

XII.  When  you  are  engaged  in  a  dispute  with  a  per- 
son of  very  different  principles  from  yourself,  and  you 
cannot  find  any  ready  way  to  prevail  with  him  to  em- 
brace the  truth  by  principles  which  you  both  freely  ac- 
knowledge, you  may  fairly  make  use  of  his  own  princi- 
9* 


102  OF  DISPUTES  IN  GENERAL. 

pies  to  show  him  his  mistake,  and  thus  convince  or  si- 
lenceliim  from  his  own  concessions. 

If  your  opponent  should  be  a  Stoic  philosopher  or  a 
Jew,  you  may  pursue  your  argument  in  defence  of  some 
Christian  doctrine  or  duty  against  such  a  disputant,  by 
axioms  or  laws  borrowed  either  from  Zeno  or  Moses. 
And  though  you  do  not  enter  into  the  inquiry  how  ma- 
ny of  the  laws  of  Moses  are  abrogated,  or  whether  Ze- 
no was  right  or  wrong  in  his  philosophy,  yet  if  from 
the  principles  and  concessions  of  your  opponent,  you 
can  support  your  argument  for  the  gospel  of  Christ,  this 
has  been  always  counted  a  fair  treatment  of  an  adver- 
sary, and  it  is  called  argumentum  ad  hominem,  or  7'utio 
ex  co7icessis.  St.  Paul  sometimes  makes  use  of  tliis  sort 
of  disputation,  when  he  talks  with  Jews  or  heathen  phi- 
losophers; and  at  last  he  silences  if  not  convinces  them: 
which  is  sometimes  necessary  to  be  done  against  an  ob- 
stinate and  clamorous  adversary,  that  just  honour  might 
be  paid  to  truths  which  he  knew  were  divine,  and  that 
the  only  true  doctrine  of  salvatoin  might  be  confirmed 
and  propagated  among  sinful  and  dying  men. 

XIII.  Yet  great  care  must  be  taken,  lest  your  debates 
break  in  upon  your  passions,  and  awaken  them  to  take 
part  in  the  controversy.  When  the  opponent  pushes 
hard,  and  gives  just  and  mortal  wounds  to  ourovvnopin- 
ons,  our  passions  are  very  apt  to  feel  the  strokes,  and  to 
rise  in  resentment  and  defence.  Self  is  so  mingled  with 
the  sentiments  which  we  have  chosen,  and  has  such  a 
tender  feeling  of  all  the  opposition  which  is  made  to 
them,  that  personal  brawls  are  very  ready  to  come  in  as 
seconds,  to  succeed  and  finish  the  dispute  of  opinions. 
Then  noise,  and  clamour,  and  folly,  appear  m  all  their 
shapes,  and  chase  reason  and  truth  out  of  sight. 

How  unhappy  is  the  case  of  frail  and  wretched  man- 
kind m  this  dark  or  dusky  state  of  strong  passion  and 
glimmering  reason!  How  ready  are  we,  when  our  pas- 
sions are  engaged  in  the  dispute,  to  consider  more  what 
loads  of  nonsense  and  reproach  we  can  lay  upon  our  op- 
ponent, than  what  reason  and  truth  require  in  the  con- 
troversy itself!  Dismal  are  the  consequences  mankind 
are  too  often  involved  in  by  this  evil  principle;  it  is  this 


THE  SOCRATICAL  WAT  OF    DISPUTATION.  103 

common  and  dangnrous  practice  that  carries  the  heart 
aside  from  all  that  is  fair  and  honest  in  oar  search  after 
truth,  or  the  propagation  of  it  in  the  world.  One  would 
wish  from  one's  very  soul  that  none  of  the  Chrisliaa  fa- 
thers had  been  guilty  of  such  follies  as  ttiese. 

But  St.  Jerome  fairly  confesses  this  evil  principle,  in 
his  apology  for  himself  to  Pammachius,  "  ttiat  he  had 
not  so  much  regarded  wliat  was  exactly  to  be  spoken  in 
the  controversy  he  had  in  hand,  as  what  was  fit  to  lay  a 
load  on  Jovinian."  And,  indeed,  I  fear  this  was  the  vile 
custom  of  many  of  the  writers  even  in  the  church  af- 
fairs of  those  times.  But  it  will  be  a  double  scandal 
upon  us,  in  our  more  enlightened  age,  if  we  will  allow 
ourselves  in  a  conduct  so  criminal  and  disI)onest.  Hap- 
py souls,  who  keep  such  a  sacred  dominion  over  their 
inferior  and  animal  powers,  and  all  the  influences  of 
pride  and  secular  interest,  that  the  sensitive  tumults,  or 
these  vicious  influences,  never  rise  to  disturb  tlie  supe- 
rior and  better  operations  of  the  reasoning  mind! 

XIV.  Tiiese  general  directions  are  necessary,  or  at 
least  useful,  in  all  debates  whatsoever,  whether  they 
arise  in  occasional  conversation,  or  are  appointed  at  any 
certain  time  or  place:  whether  they  are  managed  with 
or  witiiout  any  formal  rules  to  govern  them.  But  there 
are  three  sorts  of  disputation  in  which  there  are  some 
forms  and  orders  observed,  and  which  are  distinguished 
by  these  three  names,  viz.  Socratic,  Forensic,  and  Aca- 
demic, i.  e.  the  disputes  of  the  schools. 

Concerning  each  of  these  it  may  not  be  improper  to 
discourse  a  little,  and  give  a  few  particular  directions  or 
remarks  about  them. 


CHAPTER  XL 

THE  SOCRATICAL  WAY  OF    DISPUTATION. 

I.  This  method  of  dispute  derives  its  name  from  Soc- 
rates, by  whom  it  was  practised,  and  by  other  philoso- 
phers in  his  age,  long  before  Aristotle  invented  tiie  par- 


104  THE  SOCRATICAL  WAT  OF    DISPUTATION. 

ticular  forms  of  syllogism  in  mood  and  figure,  which  are 
now  used  in  scholastic  disputations, 

I].  The  Socratical  way  is  managed  by  questions  and 
answers  in  such  a  manner  as  this,  viz.  If  I  would  lead  a 
person  into  the  belief  of  a  heaven  or  hell,  or  a  future 
state  of  rewards  and  punishments,  I  might  begin  in  some 
such  manner  of  inquiry,  and  suppose  the  most  obvious 
and  easy  answers. 

Q.  Does  not  God  govern  the  world.' 

A.  Surely  he  that  made  it  governs  it. 

Q.  Is  not  God  both  a  good  and  a  righteous  gover- 
nor? 

A.  Both  these  characters  doubtless  belong  to  him. 

Q.  What  is  the  true  notion  of  a  good  and  righteous 
governor? 

A.  That  he  punishes  the  wicked  and  rewards  the 
good. 

Q.  Are  the  good  always  rewarded  in  this  life? 

A.  No  surely;  for  many  virtuous  men  are  miserable 
here,  and  greatly  afflicted. 

Q.  Are  the  wicked  always  punished  in  this  life? 

A.  No  certainly;  for  many  of  them  live  without  sor- 
row, and  some  of  the  vilest  of  men  are  often  raised  to 
great  riclies  and  honour. 

Q.  Wherein  then  doth  God  make  it  appear  that  he  is 
good  and  righteous? 

A.  I  own  there  is  but  little  appearance  of  it  on  earth. 

Q.  Will  there  not  be  a  time,  then,  when  the  tables 
shall  be  turned,  and  the  scene  of  things  changed,  since 
God  governs  mankind  rigliteously? 

A-  Doubtless  there  must  be  a  proper  time,  wherein 
God  will  make  that  goodness  and  that  righteousness  to 
appear. 

I  Q.  If  this  be  not  before  their  death,  how  can  it  be 
done? 

A.  I  can  think  of  no  other  way  but  by  supposing  man 
to  have  some  existence  after  this  life. 

Q.  Are  you  not  convinced  then  that  there  must  be  a 
state  of  reward  and  punishment  after  death? 

A.  Yes  surely;  I  now  see  plainly,  that  the  goodness 


OF  DISPUTATION.  105 

and  righteousness  of  God,  as  governor  of  the  world,  ne- 
cessarily require  it. 

III.  Now  the  advantages  of  this  method  are  very  con- 
siderable. 

1.  It  represents  the  form  of  a  dialogue  or  common 
conversation,  which  is  a  much  more  easy,  more  pleasant, 
and  a  more  sprightly  way  of  instruction,  and  more  fit 
to  excite  the  attention,  and  sharpen  the  penetration  of 
the  learner,  than  solitary  reading  or  silent  attention  to 
a  lecture.  Man,  being  a  sociable  creature,  delights  more 
in  conversation,  and  learns  better  this  way,  if  it  could 
always  be  wisely  and  hajipily  practised. 

2.  Tliis  metliod  hath  something  very  obliging  in  it,  and 
carries  a  very  humble  and  condescending  air,  when  he 
that  instructs  seems  to  be  the  inquirer,  and  seeks  infor- 
mation from  him  who  learns. 

3.  It  leads  felie  learner  into  the  knowledge  of  truth  as 
it  were  by  his  own  invention,  which  is  a  very  pleasing 
thing  to  human  nature;  and  by  questions  pertinently  and 
artificially  proposed,  it  does  as  effectually  draw  him  on 
to  discover  his  own  mistakes,  which  he  is  much  more 
easily  persuaded  to  relinquish  when  he  seems  to  have 
discovered  them  himself 

4.  It  is  managed  in  a  great  measure  in  the  form  of 
the  most  easy  reasoning,  always  arising  from  something 
eisserted  or  known  in  the  foregoing  answer,  and  so  pro- 
ceeding to  inquire  something  unknown  in  the  following 
question,  which  again  makes  way  for  the  next  answer. 
Now  sucii  an  exercise  is  very  alluring  and  entertaining 
to  tlie  understanding,  while  its  own  reasoning  powers 
are  all  along  employed,  and  tliat  without  labour  or  diffi- 
culty, because,  the  querist  finds  out  and  proposes  all  the 
intermediate  ideas  or  middle  terms. 

IV.  There  is  a  method  very  nearly  akin  to  this,  which 
has  much  obtained  of  late,  viz.  writing  controversies  by 
questions  only,  or  confirming  or  refuting  any  position, 
or  persuading  to  or  dehorting  from  any  practice,  by  the 
mere  proposal  of  queries.  The  answer  to  them  is  sup- 
posed to  be  so  plain  and  so  necessary,  that  they  are  not 
expressed,  because  the  query  itself  carries  a  convincing 


i06  OF  FORENSIC  DISPUTES. 

argument  in  it,  and  seems  to  deternaine  what  the  answer 
must  be. 

V.  If  Christian  catecliisms  could  be  framed  in  the 
manner  of  a  Socratical  dispute  by  question  and  answer, 
it  would  wonderfully  enlighten  the  minds  of  children, 
and  it  would  improve  their  intellectual  and  reasoning 
powers,  it  the  same  time  that  it  leads  them  into  the  know- 
ledge of  religion:  and  it  is  upon  one  account  well  suited 
to  tiie  capacity  of  children;  for  the  questions  may  be 
pretty  numerous,  and  the  querist  must  not  proceed  too 
swiftly  towards  the  deterinination  of  his  point  proposed, 
that  lie  may  with  more  ease,  with  brighter  evidence, 
and  with  surer  success,  draw  the  learner  on  to  assent  to 
those  principles,  step  by  step,  from  whence  the  final 
conclusion  will  naturally  arise.  The  only  inconveni- 
ence would  be  this,  that  if  children  were  to  reason  out 
all  their  way  entirely  into  the  knowledge  of  every  part 
of  their  religion,  it  would  draw  common  catechisms  into 
too  large  a  volume  for  their  leisure,  attention,  or  me- 
mory. 

Yet  those  who  explain  their  catechisms  to  them  may, 
by  due  a[)plication  and  forethought,  instruct  them  in 
this  manner. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


OF    FORENSIC    DISPUTES. 


I.  The  forum  was  a  public  place  in  Rome  where 
lawyers  and  orators  made  their  speeches  before  the 
proper  judge  in  matters  of  property  or  in  criminal  cases, 
to  accuse  or  excuse,  to  complain  or  defend:  thence  all 
sorts  of  disputations  in  public  assemblies  or  courts  of  jus- 
tice, where  several  persons  make  their  distinct  speeches 
for  or  against  any  person  or  thing  whatsoever,  but  more 
especially  in  civil  matters,  may  come  under  the  name 
of  Forensic  disputes. 

II,  This  is  practised  not  only  in  the  courts  of  judica- 
ture, where  a  single  person  sits  to  judge  of  the  truth  or 


OF  FORENSIC  DISPUTES.  107 

goodness  of  any  cause,  and  to  determine  according  to 
the  weight  of  reasons  on  eitiier  side;  but  it  is  used  also 
m  pohtical  senates  or  parHarnents,  ecclesiastical  synods, 
and  assemblies  of  various  kinds. 

In  these  assemblies,  generally  one  person  is  chosen 
chairman  or  mediator,  nut  to  give  a  determination  to 
the  controversy,  but  chiefly  to  keep  the  several  speakers 
to  the  rules  of  order  and  decency  in  their  conduct:  but 
the  final  determination  of  the  questions  arises  from  the 
majority  of  opinions  or  votes  in  the  assembly,  accord- 
ing as  they  are  or  ought  to  be  swayed  by  tlje  superior 
weight  of  reason  appearing  in  the  several  speeches  that 
are  made. 

III.  The  method  of  proceeding  is  usually  in  some 
such  form  as  this.  The  first  person  who  speaks,  when 
the  court  is  set,  opens  the  case  either  more  briefly  or  at 
large,  and  proposes  the  case  to  the  judge  or  the  chair- 
man, or  moderator  of  the  assembly,  and  gives  his  own 
reasons  for  his  opinion  in  the  case  proposed. 

IV.  This  person  is  succeeded  by  one,  or  perhaps  two, 
or  several  more,  who  paraphrase  on  the  same  subject, 
and  argue  on  the  same  side  of  the  question:  they  confirm 
what  the  first  has  spoken,  and  urge  new  reasons  to  en- 
force the  same:  then  those  who  are  of  a  diflerent  opinion 
stand  up  and  make  their  several  speeches  in  succession, 
opposing  the  cause  which  others  have  maintained,  giving 
their  reasons  against  it,  and  endeavouring  to  refute  the 
arguments  whereby  the  first  speakers  have  supported  it. 

V.  After  this,  one  and  another  raises  up  to  make  their 
replies,  to  vindicate  or  to  condemn,  to  establish  or  to 
confute  what  has  been  offered  before  on  each  side  of  the 
question;  till  at  last,  according  to  the  rules,  orders,  or 
customs  of  the  court  or  assembly,  the  contioversy  is  de- 
cided, either  by  a  single  judge,  or  the  suffrages  of  the 
assembly. 

VI.  Where  the  question  or  matter  in  debate  consists 
of  several  parts,  after  it  is  once  opened  by  tlie  first  or 
second  speaker,  sometimes  those  who  follow  take  each 
of  them  a  particular  part  of  the  debate,  according  to 
their  inclination  or  their  prior  agreement,  and  apply 
themselves  to  argue  upon  that  single  point  only,  that  so 


108  OF    FORENSIC  DISPUTES. 

the  whole  complexion  of  the  debate  may  not  be  thrown 
into  confusion  by  the  variety  of  subjects,  if  every  speaker 
should  handle  all  the  subjects  of  debate. 

VII.  Before  the  tinal  sentence  of  determination  is 
given,  it  is  usual  to  have  tlie  reasons  and  arguments, 
which  have  been  offered  on  botli  sides,  summed  up  and 
represented  in  a  more  compendious  manner;  and  this 
is  done  either  by  the  appointed  judge  of  tlie  court,  or 
the  cliairman,  or  some  noted  person  in  the  assembly, 
that  so  judgment  may  proceed  upon  the  fullest  survey 
of  the  whole  subject,  tliat  as  far  as  possible  in  human 
affairs  nothing  may  be  done  contrary  to  truth  or  justice. 

VIII.  As  this  is  a  practice  in  which  multitudes  of 
gentlemen,  besides  those  of  the  learned  professions,  may 
be  engaged,  at  least,  in  their  maturer  years  of  life,  so  it 
would  be  a  very  proper  and  useful  thing  to  introduce 
this  custom  into  our  academies,  viz.  to  propose  cases, 
and  let  the  students  debate  them  in  a  forensic  manner 
in  the  presence  of  their  tutors.  There  was  something 
of  this  kind  practised  by  the  Roman  youth  in  their 
schools,  in  order  to  train  them  up  for  orators,  both  in 
the  forum  and  in  the  senate.  Perhaps  Juvenal  gives 
some  hints  of  it  when  he  says, 

et  nos, 

Consilium  dedimus  Syllae,  privatus  utaltum 

Dormiret Sat.  1. 

Where  with  men  boys  I  strove  to  get  renown, 
Advising  Sylla  to  a  private  gown, 
That  he  might  sleep  the  sounder. 

Sometimes  these  were  assigned  to  the  boys  as  single 
subjects  of  a  theme  or  declamation:  so  the  same  poet 
speaks  sarcastically  to  Hannibal: 

I  demens,  et  saevas  curre  per  Alpes, 

Ut  pueris  placeas  et  declamatio  fias.  Sut.  10. 

Go  climb  the  rugged  Alps,  ambitious  fool. 
To  please  the  boys,  and  be  a  theme  at  school. 

See  more  of  this  matter  in  Rennet's  Antiquities  of 
Rome,  in  the  second  Essay  on  the  Roman  education. 


OF  ACADEMIC,  OR  &C.  109 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

OF    ACADEMIC,    OR    SCHOLASTIC    DISPUTATION. 

The  common  methods  in  which  disputes  are  managed 
in  schools  af  learning  are  these,  viz. 

I.  The  tutor  appoints  a  question  in  some  of  the 
sciences,  to  be  debated  amongst  his  students:  one  of 
them  undertakes  to  affirm  or  to  deny  the  question,  and 
to  defend  his  assertion  or  negation,  and  to  answer  all 
objections  against  it;  he  is  called  the  respondent:  and 
the  rest  of  the  students  in  the  same  class,  or  who  pursue 
the  same  science,  are  the  opponents,  who  are  appointed 
to  dispute  or  raise  objections  against  the  proposition  thus 
affirmed  or  denied. 

II.  Each  of  the  students  successively  in  their  turn  be- 
come the  respondent  or  the  defender  of  that  proposition, 
while  the  rest  oppose  it  also  successively  in  their  turns. 

III.  It  is  the  business  of  the  respondent  to  write  a 
thesis  in  Latin,  or  short  discourses  on  the  question  pro- 
posed; and  he  either  affirms  or  denies  the  question,  ac- 
cording to  the  opinion  of  the  tutor,  which  is  supposed 
to  be  the  truth,  and  he  reads  it  at  the  beginning  of  the 
dispute. 

IV.  In  his  discourse  (which  is  written  with  as  great 
accuracy  as  the  youth  is  capable  of)  he  explains  the 
terms  of  the  question,  frees  them  from  all  ambiguity, 
fixes  their  sense,  declares  the  true  intent  and  meaning 
of  the  question  itself,  separates  it  from  other  questions 
with  which  it  may  have  been  complicated,  and  distin- 
guishes it  from  other  questions  which  may  happen  to 
be  akin  to  it,  and  then  pronounces  in  the  negative  or  af- 
firmative concerning  it. 

V.  When  this  is  done,  then,  in  the  second  part  of  his 
discourse,  he  gives  his  own  strongest  arguments  to  con- 
firm the  proposition  he  has  laid  down,  i.  e.  to  vindicate 
his  own  side  of  the  question;  but  he  does  not  usually 
proceed  to  represent  the  objections  against  it,  and  to 
solve  or  answer  them;  for  it  is  the  business  of  the  other 
students  to  raise  objections  in  disputing. 

10 


110 


OF   ACADEMIC,  OB 


VI.  Note,  in  some  schools  the  lespondent  is  admitted 
to  talk  largely  upon  the  question,  with  many  flourishes 
and  illustrations,  to  introduce  great  authorities  from 
ancient  and  modern  writings  for  the  support  of  it,  and 
to  scatter  Latin  reproaches  in  abundance  on  all  those 
who  are  of  a  different  sentiment.  But  this  is  not  al- 
ways permitted  ;  nor  should  it  indeed  ever  be  indulged, 
lest  it  teach  youth  to  reproach  instead  of  to  reason. 

VII.  When  the  respondent  has  read  over  his  thesis  in 
the  school,  the  junior  student  makes  an  objection,  and 
draws  it  up  into  the  regular  form  of  a  syllotrism :  the 
respondent  repeats  the  objection,  and  either  denies  the 
major  or  minor  proposition  directly,  or  he  distinguishes 
upon  some  word  or  phrase  in  the  major  or  minor,  and 
shows  in  what  sense  the  proposition  may  be  true,  but 
that  sense  does  not  affect  the  question :  and  then  declares, 
that  in  the  sense  which  affects  the  present  question,  the 
proposition  is  not  true,  and  consequently  he  denies  it. 

VII [.  Then  the  opponent  proceeds  by  another  syllo- 
gism to  vindicate  the  proposition  that  is  denied :  again 
the  respondent  answers  by  denying  or  distinguishing. 

Thus  the  disputation  goes  on  in  a  series  or  succession 
of  syllogisms  and  answers,  till  the  objector  is  silenced, 
and  has  no  more  to  say. 

IX.  When  he  can  go  no  further,  the  next  student  be- 
gins to  propose  his  objection,  and  then  the  third  and  the 
fourth,  even  to  the  senior,  who  is  the  last  opponent. 

X.  D  iring  this  time  the  tutor  sits  in  the  chair  as  presi- 
dent or  moderator,  to  see  that  the  rules  of  diputation 
and  decency  be  observed  on  both  sides;  and  to  admonish 
each  disputant  of  any  irregularity  in  their  conduct. 
His  work  is  also  to  illustrate  and  explain  the  answer  or 
distinction  of  the  respondent  where  it  is  obscure,  to 
strengthen  it  where  it  is  weak,  and  to  correct  it  where  it 
is  false:  and  when  the  respondent  is  pinched  w.th  a 
strong  objection,  and  is  at  lo  s  for  an  answer,  the  mode- 
rator assists  him,  and  suggests  some  answer  to  the  ob- 
jection of  the  opponent,  in  defence  of  the  question,  ac- 
cording to  his  opinion  or  sentiment. 

XI.  In  public  disputes,  where  the  opponents  and  re- 
spondents choose  their  own  side  of  the  question,  the 


OF  SCHOLASTIC  DISPUTATION.  Ill 

moderator's  work  is  not  to  favour  either  disputant;  but 
he  only  sits  as  president,  to  see  that  the  lavvs  of  dispu- 
tation be  observed,  and  a  decorum  maintained. 

XII.  Now  the  laws  of  disputation  relate  either  to  the 
opponent  or  to  the  respondent,  or  to  both. 

The  laws  obliging  the  opponent  are  these. 

1.  That  he  must  directly  contradict  the  proposition  of 
the  respondent,  and  not  merely  attack  anv  of  the  argu- 
ments whereby  the  respondent  has  supported  tliat  prop- 
osition; for  it  is  one  thing  to  confute  a  single  argument 
of  the  respondent,  and  another  to  confute  the  thesis  it- 
self. 

2.  (Which  is  akin  to  the  former)  he  must  contradict 
or  oppose  the  very  sense  and  intention  of  the  proposi- 
tion as  the  respondent  has  stated  it,  and  not  merely  oppose 
the  words  ofthe  thesis  in  any  other  sense;  for  this  would  be 
the  way  to  plunge  tlie  dispute  into  ambiguity  and  dark- 
ness, to  talk  beside  the  question,  to  wrangle  about  words, 
and  to  attack  a  proposition  different  from  what  the 
respondent  has  espoused,  wliich  is  called  ignoratio  elenchi. 

3.  He  must  propose  his  argamenta  in  a  plain,  short, 
and  syllogistic  form,  according  to  the  rules  of  logic, 
without  flying  to  fallacies  or  sophisms,  and,  as  far  as 
may  be,  he  should  use  categorical  syllogisms. 

4.  Though  the  respoiident  may  be  attacked  either  Uf»- 
on  a  point  of  his  own  concession,  which  is  called  argu- 
mentam  ex  concessis,  or  by  reducing  him  to  an  absurdity, 
which  is  called  reductio  ad  absurdam,  yet  it  is  the  neat- 
est, the  most  useful,  and  the  best  sort  of  disputation, 
where  the  opponent  draws  his  objections  from  the  nature 
of  the  question  itself 

5.  Wiiere  the  respondent  denies  any  proposition,  the 
opponent,  if  he  proceed,  must  directly  vindicate  and 
confirm  that  proposition,  i.  e.  he  must  make  ihat  propo- 
sition the  conclusion  of  his  next  syllogism. 

6.  Where  the  respondent  limits  or  distinguishes  any 
proportion,  the  opponent  must  directly  prove  his  own 
proposition  in  that  sense,  and  according  to  the  member 
of  the  distinction  in  which  the  respondent  denied  it. 

XIII.  the  laws  that  oblige  the  respondent  are  these. 


112  OF    ACADEMIC,  OR 

1.  To  repeat  the  argument  of  the  opponent  in  the 
very  same  words  in  which  it  was  proposed,  before  he  at- 
tempts to  answer  it. 

2.  If  tlie  syllogism  be  false  in  the  loorical  form  of  it, 
ho  must  discover  the  fault  according  to  the  rules  of 
logic. 

3.  If  the  argument  does  not  directly  and  effectually 
oppose  his  thesis,  he  must  show  this  mistake,  and  make 
it  appear  that  his  thesis  is  safe,  even  though  the  argu- 
ment of  the  opponent  be  admitted;  or,  at  least,  that 
the  argument  does  only  aim  at  it  collaterally,  or  at  a 
distance,  and  not  directly  overthrow  it,  or  conclude 
against  it. 

4.  Where  the  matter  of  the  opponent's  objection  is 
faulty  in  any  part  of  it,  the  respondent  must  grant  what 
is  true  in  it,  he  must  deny  what  is  false,  lie  must  distin- 
guish or  limit  the  proposition  whicli  is  ambioruous  or 
doubtful,  and  then,  granting  the  sense  in  wliich  it  is 
true,  he  must  deny  the  sense  in  which  it  is  false. 

5.  If  an  hypothetic  proposition  be  false,  the  respon- 
dent must  deny  the  consequence;  if  a  disjunctive,  he 
must  deny  the  disjunction;  if  a  categoric  or  relative,  he 
must  simply  deny  it. 

6.  It  is  sometimes  allowed  for  the  respondent  to  use 
an  indirect  answer  after  he  has  answered  directly;  and 
he  may  also  show  how  the  opponent's  argument  may  be 
retorted  against  himself. 

XIV.  The  laws  that  oblige  both  disputants  are  these. 

1.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  there  should  be  a  men- 
tion of  certain  general  principles  in  which  they  both 
agree,  relating  to  tiie  question,  that  so  they  may  not  dis- 
pute on  those  things  which  either  are  or  ought  to  have 
been  first  granted  on  both  sides. 

2.  When  the  state  of  the  controversy  is  well  known, 
and  plainly  determined  and  agreed,  it  must  not  be  al- 
tered by  either  disputant  in  the  course  of  the  disputa- 
tion; and  the  respondent  especially  should  keep  a  watch- 
ful eye  on  the  opponent  in  this  matter. 

3.  Let  neither  party  invade  the  province  of  the  oth- 
er; especially  let  the  respondent  take  heed  that  he  does 


SCHOLASTIC  DISPUTATION.  113 

not  turn  opponent,  except  in  retorting  the  argument 
upon  his  adversary  after  a  direct  response;  and  even  this 
is  aliowed  only  as  an  illustration  or  confirmation  of  his 
own  response. 

4.  Let  each  wait  with  patience  till  the  other  has  done 
speaking.  It  is  a  piece  of  rudeness  to  interrupt  another 
in  his  speech. 

Yet,  though  the  disputants  have  not  this  liberty,  the 
moderator  may  do  it,  when  either  of  the  disputants 
break  the  rules,  and  he  may  interpose  so  far  as  to  keep 
them  in  order. 

XV.  It  must  be  confessed  there  are  some  advantages 
to  be  attained  by  academical  disputation.  It  gives  vi- 
gour and  briskness  to  the  mind  thus  exercised,  and  re- 
lieves the  languor  of  private  study  and  meditation.  It 
sharpens  the  wit,  and  all  the  inventive  powers.  It  makes 
the  thoughts  active,  and  sends  them  on  all  sides  to  find 
arguments  and  answers  both  for  opposition  and  defence. 
It  gives  opportunity  of  viewing  the  subject  of  discourse 
on  all  sides,  and  of  learning  wiiat  inconveniences,  diffi- 
culties, and  objections,  attend  particular  opinions.  It 
furnishes  the  sou!  with  various  occasions  of  starting  such 
thoughts  as  otherwise  would  never  have  come  into  the 
mind.  It  makes  a  student  more  expert  in  attacking  and 
refuting  an  error,  as  well  as  in  vindicating  a  truth.  It 
instructs  the  scholar  in  the  various  methods  of  warding 
off  the  force  of  objections,  and  of  discovering  and  re- 
pelling tlie  subtle  tricks  of  sophisters.  It  procures  also 
a  freedom  and  readiness  of  speech,  and  raises  the  mod- 
est and  difKdent  genius  to  a  due  degree  of  courage. 

XVI,  But  there  are  some  very  grievous  inconvenien- 
ces tliat  may  sometimes  overbalance  all  these  advanta- 
ges. For  many  young  students,  by  a  constant  habit  of 
disputing,  grow  impudent  and  audacious,  proud  and  dis- 
dainful, talkative  and  impertinent,  and  render  themselves 
intolerable  by  an  obstinate  humour  of  maintaining  what- 
ever tliey  have  asserted,  as  well  as  by  a  spirit  of  contra- 
diction, opposing  almost  every  thing  that  they  hear. 
The  disputation  itself  often  awakens  the  passions  of  am- 
bition, emulation,  and  anger;  it  carries  away  the  mind 

10* 


114  OF  ACADEMIC,  OR 

from  that  calm  and  sedate  temper  which  is  so  necessary 
to  contemplate  truth. 

XVII.  It  is  evident  also,  that  by  frequent  exercises  of 
this  sort,  wherein  opinions  true  and  false  are  argued, 
supported,  and  refuted  on  both  sides,  the  mind  of  man 
is  led  by  insensible  degrees  to  an  uncertainty  and  fluctu- 
ating temper,  and  falls  into  danger  of  a  sceptical  hu- 
mour, which  never  comes  to  an  establishment  in  any 
doctrines.  Many  persons,  by  this  means,  become  much 
more  ready  to  observe  whatsoever  is  offered  in  searching 
out  truth;  they  hardly  wait  till  they  have  read  or  heard 
the  sentiment  of  any  person,  before  their  heads  are  bus- 
ily employed  to  seek  out  arguments  against  it.  They 
grow  naturally  sharp  in  finding  out  difficulties;  and  by 
indulging  this  humour  they  converse  with  the  dark  and 
doubtful  parts  of  a  subject  so  long,  till  they  almost  ren- 
der themselves  incapable  of  receiving  the  full  evidence 
of  a  proposition,  and  acknowledging  the  light  of  truth. 
It  has  some  tendency  to  make  a  youth  a  carping  critic, 
rather  than  a  judicious  man. 

XVIII.  I  would  add  yet  further,  that  in  these  dispu- 
tations the  respondent  is  generally  appointed  to  main- 
tain the  supposed  truth,  tliat  is,  tlie  tutor's  opinion.  But 
all  the  opponents  are  busy  and  warmly  engaged  in  find- 
ing arguments  against  the  truth.  Now  if  a  sprightly 
young  genius  happens  to  manage  his  arguments  so  well 
as  to  puzzle  and  gravel  the  respondent,  and  perliaps  to 
perplex  the  moderator  a  little  too,  he  is  soon  tempted  to 
suppose  his  argument  unanswerable,  and  the  truth  en- 
tirely to  lie  on  his  side.  The  pleasure  which  he  takes 
in  having  found  a  sophism  which  has  great  appearance 
of  reason,  and  which  he  himself  has  managed  with  such 
success,  becomes  perhaps  a  strong  prejudice  to  engage  his 
inward  sentiments  in  favour  of  his  argument,  and  in  op- 
position to  the  supposed  truth, 

XIX.  Yet  perhaps  it  may  be  possible  to  reduce  scho- 
lastic disputations  under  such  a  guard  as,  may,  in  some 
measure,  prevent  most  of  these  abuses  of  them,  and  tlie 
unliappy  events  that  too  often  attend  them;  for  it  is  pity 
that  an  exercise  which  has  some  valuable  benefits  atten- 
ding it,  should  be  utterly  thrown  away,  if  it  be  pos.sible 


SCHOLASTIC  DISPUTATION.  115 

to  secure  young  minds  against  the  abuse  of  it;  for  which 
purpose  some  of  these  directions  may  seem  proper. 
XX.   General  directions  for  scliolastic  disputes: 

1.  Never  dispute  upon  mere  trifles,  things  that  are 
utterly  useless  to  be  known,  under  a  vain  pretence  of 
sharpening  the  wit;  for  the  same  advantage  may  be  de- 
rived from  solid  and  useful  subjects,  and  thus  two  hap- 
py ends  may  be  attained  at  once.  Or  if  such  disputa- 
tions are  always  thought  dangerous  in  important  mat- 
ters, let  them  be  utterly  abandoned. 

2.  Do  not  make  infinite  and  unsearchable  things  the 
matter  of  dispute,  nor  such  propositions  as  are  made  up 
of  mere  words  without  ideas,  lest  it  lead  young  persons 
into  a  most  unhappy  habit  of  talking  without  a  mean- 
ing, and  boldly  to  determine  upon  things  that  are  hardly 
within  the  reach  of  human  capacity. 

3.  Let  not  obvious  and  known  truths,  or  some  of  the 
most  plain  and  certain  propositions,  be  bandied  about  in 
a  disputation,  for  a  mere  trial  of  skill;  for  he  that  oppo- 
ses them  in  this  manner  will  bo  in  danger  of  contracting 
a  habit  of  opposing  all  evidence,  will  acquire  a  spirit  of 
contradiction,  and  pride  himself  in  a  power  of  resisting 
the  brightest  ligiit,  and  fighting  against  the  strongest 
proofs;  this  will  insensibly  injure  the  mind,  and  tends 
greatly  to  a  universal  scepticism. 

Upon  the  wliole,  therefore,  the  most  proper  subjects 
of  dispute  seem  to  be,  those  very  questions  which  are 
not  of  tbe  very  highest  importance  and  certaint}',  nor 
of  the  meanest  and  trifling  kind;  but  rather  the  interme- 
diate questions  between  these  two,  and  there  is  a  large 
sufficiency  of  them  in  the  sciences.  But  this  I  put  as  a 
mere  proposal,  to  be  determined  by  the  more  learned 
and  prudent. 

4.  It  would  be  well  if  every  dispute  could  be  so  or- 
dered as  to  be  a  means  of  searching  out  truth,  and  not 
to  gain  a  triumph.  Then  each  disputant  might  come 
to  the  work  without  bias  and  prejudice:  with  a  desire  of 
truth,  and  not  with  ambition  of  glory  and  victory. 

Nor  should  the  aim  and  design  of  the  disputant  be  to 
avoid  artfully  and  escape  the  difficulties  which  the  op- 


IIG  OP    ACADEMIC,  OR 

ponent  offers,  but  to  discuss  them  thoroughly,  and  solve 
them  fairly,  if  they  are  capable  of  being  solved. 

Again,  let  the  opponent  be  solicitous  not  to  darken 
and  confound  the  responses  that  are  given  him  by  fresh 
subtleties;  but  let  him  bethink  liimself  whether  they  are 
not  a  just  answer  to  the  objection,  and  be  lionestly  ready 
to  perceive  and  accept  them,  and  yield  to  them. 

5.  For  this  end  let  both  the  respondent  and  opponent 
use  the  clearest  and  most  distinct  and  expressive  lan- 
guage in  which  they  can  clothe  their  thoughts.  Let 
them  seek  and  practise  brevity  and  perspicuity  on  both 
sides,  without  long  declamations,  tedious  circumlocu- 
tions, and  rhetorical  flourishes. 

If  there  happen  to  be  any  doubt  or  obscurity  on  eith- 
er side,  let  neither  the  one  nor  tiie  other  ever  refuse  to 
give  a  fair  explication  of  the  words  they  use. 

6.  They  should  not  indulge  ridicule,  either  of  persons 
or  things,  in  their  disputations.  They  should  abstain 
from  all  banter  and  jest,  laughter  and  merriment. 
These  are  things  that  break  in  upon  that  philosophical 
gravity,  sedateness,  and  serenity  of  temper  which  ought 
to  be  observed  in  every  search  after  truth.  However  an 
argument  on  some  subjects  may  be  sometimes  clothed 
with  a  little  pleasantry,  yet  a  jest  or  witticism  should 
never  be  used  instead  of  an  argument,  nor  should  it  ev- 
er be  suffered  to  pass  for  a  real  and  solid  proof 

But  especially  if  the  subject  be  sacred  or  divine,  and 
have  nothing  in  it  comical  or  ridiculous,  all  ludicrous 
turns,  and  jocose  or  comical  airs,  should  be  entirely  ex- 
cluded, lest  young  minds  become  tinctured  with  a  silly 
and  profane  sort  of  ridicule,  and  learn  to  jest  and  trifle 
with  the  awful  solemnities  of  religion. 

7.  Nor  should  sarcasm  and  reproach,  or  insolent  lan- 
guage, ever  be  used  among  fair  disputants.  Turn  not 
off  from  tilings  to  speak  of  persons.  Leave  all  noisy 
contests,  all  immodest  clamours,  brawling  language,  and 
especially  all  personal  scandal  and  scurrility,  to  the 
meanest  part  of  the  vulgar  world.  Let  your  manner  be 
all  candour  and  gentleness,  patient  and  ready  to  hear, 
humbly  zealous  to  inform  and  be  informed:  you  should 
be  free  and  pleasant  in  every  answer  and    behaviour, 


SCHOLASTIC  DISPUTATION.  117 

rather  like  well  bred  gentlemen  in  polite  conversation, 
than  like  noisy  and  contentious  wranglers. 

8.  If  the  opponent  sees  victory  to  incline  to  his  side, 
let  him  be  content  to  show  the  force  of  his  argument  to 
the  intelligent  part  of  the  company,  without  too  impor- 
tunate and  petulant  demands  of  an  answer,  and  witliout 
insulting  over  his  antagonist,  or  putting  the  modesty  of 
the  respondent  to  the  blush.  Nor  let  the  respondent 
triumph  over  the  opponent  when  he  is  silent  and  replies 
no  more.  On  which  side  soever  victory  declares  her- 
self, let  neither  of  them  manage  with  such  unpleasing 
and  insolent  airs,  as  to  awaken  those  evil  passions  of 
pride,  anger,  shame,  or  resentment  on  either  side  which 
alienate  tiie  mind  from  truth,  render  it  obstinate  in  the 
defence  of  an  error,  and  never  suffer  it  to  part  with  any 
of  its  old  opinions. 

In  sliort,  when  truth  evidently  appears  on  either  side, 
let  them  learn  to  yield  to  conviction.  When  eitiier  par- 
ty is  at  a  nonplus,  let  them  confess  the  difficulty,  and 
desire  present  assistance,  or  further  time  and  retirement 
to  consider  of  the  matter,  and  not  rack  their  present  in- 
vention to  find  out  little  shifts  to  avoid  the  force  and  evi- 
dence of  truth. 

9.  Might  it  not  be  a  safer  practice  in  order  to  attain 
the  best  ends  of  disputation,  and  to  avoid  some  of  the 
ill  effects  of  it,  if  the  opponents  were  sometimes  en- 
gaged on  the  side  of  truth,  and  produced  their  arguments 
in  opposition  to  error?  And  what  if  the  respondent  was 
appointed  to  support  the  error,  and  defend  it  as  well  as 
he  could,  till  he  was  forced  to  yield  at  least  to  those 
arguments  of  the  opponent  which  appear  to  be  really 
just,  and  strong,  and  unanswerable? 

In  this  practice,  the  thesis  of  the  respondent  should 
only  be  a  fair  stating  of  the  question  with  some  of  the 
chief  objections  against  the  truth  proposed  and  solved. 

Perliaps  this  practice  might  not  so  easily  be  perverted 
and  abused  to  raise  a  cavilling,  disputive,  and  sceptical 
temper  in  the  minds  of  youth. 

I  confess,  in  this  method  which  I  now  propose,  there 
would  be  one  amongst  the  students,  viz.  the  respondent, 
always  engaged  in  the  supposed  error;  but  all  the  rest 


118  OF    STUDY    OR    MEDITATION. 

would  be  exercising  their  talents  in  arguing  for  the  sup- 
posed truth:  whereas,  in  the  common  methods  of  dis- 
putation in  the  schools,  especially  where  the  students 
are  nume^-ous,  each  single  student  is  perpetually  em- 
ployed to  oppose  the  truth,  and  vindicate  error,  except 
once  in  a  long  time,  when  it  comes  to  his  turn  to  be  re- 
spondent. 

10.  Upon  the  whole  it  seems  necessary  that  these 
methods  of  disputation  should  be  learned  in  the  schools, 
in  order  to  teach  students  better  to  defend  truth,  and  to 
refute  error,  both  in  writing  and  conversation,  where 
the  scholastic  forms  are  utterly  neglected. 

But  after  all,  the  advantage  which  youth  may  gain 
by  disputations  depends  much  on  the  tutor  or  moderator, 
he  slioiild  manage  with  such  prudence,  both  in  the  dis- 
putation and  at  the  end  of  it,  as  to  make  all  the  dispu- 
tants know  the  very  point  of  controversy  wherein  it 
consists;  he  should  manifest  the  fallacy  of  sophistical  ob- 
jections, and  confirm  the  solid  arguments  and  answers. 
This  might  teach  students  how  to  make  tiie  art  of  dis- 
putation useful  for  the  searching  out  the  truth  and  the 
defence  of  it,  that  it  may  not  be  learned  and  practised 
only  as  an  art  of  wrangling,  which  reigned  in  the  schools 
several  hundred  years,  and  divested  tlie  growing  reason 
of  youth  of  its  best  hopes  and  improvements. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


OF  STUDY  OR  MEDITATION. 


I.  It  has  been  proved  and  established  in  some  of  the 
foregoing  chapters,  that  neither  our  own  observations, 
nor  our  reading  the  labours  of  the  learned,  nor  the  at- 
tendance on  the  best  lectures  of  instruction,  nor  enjoying 
the  brightest  conversation,  can  ever  make  a  man  truly 
knowing  and  wise,  without  the  labours  of  his  own  rea- 
son in  surveying,  examining,  and  judging  concerning 
all  subjects  upon  the  best  evidence  he  can  acquire.  A 
good  genius,  or  sagacity  of  thought,  a  happy  judgment. 


OP  STUDY  OR  MEDITATION.  119 

a  capacious  memory,  and  large  opportunities  of  observa- 
tion and  converse,  w^ill  do  much  of  themselves  tovv^ards 
the  cultivation  of  the  mind,  where  they  are  well  im- 
proved ;  but  where,  to  the  advantage  of  learned  lectures, 
living  instructions,  and  well  cliosen  books,  diligence  and 
study  are  superadded,  this  man  has  all  iiuman  aids  con- 
curring to  raise  him  to  a  superior  degree  of  wisdom  and 
knowledge. 

Under  the  preceding  heads  of  discourse  it  has  been 
already  declared  how  our  own  meditation  and  reflection 
should  examine,  cultivate,  and  improve  all  other  methods 
and  advantages  of  enriching  the  understanding.  What 
remains  in  this  chapter  is  to  give  some  further  occasional 
hints  how  to  employ  our  own  thoughts,  what  sort  of  sub- 
jects we  should  meditate  on,  and  in  what  manner  we 
should  regulate  our  studies,  and  how  we  may  improve  our 
judgment,  so  as  in  the  most  effectual  and  compendious 
way  to  attain  such  knowledge  as  may  be  most  useful 
for  every  man  in  his  circumstances  of  life,  and  particu- 
larly for  those  of  the  learned  professions. 

II.  The  first  direction  for  youth  is  this — learn  betimes 
to  distinguish  between  words  and  things.  Get  clear 
and  plain  ideas  of  the  things  you  are  set  to  study.  Do 
not  content  yourselves  with  mere  words  and  names,  lest 
your  laboured  improvements  only  amass  a  heap  of  un- 
intelligible phrases,  and  you  feed  upon  husks  instead  of 
kernels.     This  rule  is  of  unknown  use  in  every  science. 

But  the  greatest  and  most  common  danger  is  in  the 
sacred  science  of  theology,  where  settled  terms  and 
phrases  have  been  pronounced  divine  and  orthodox, 
which  yet  have  no  meaning  in  them.  The  scholas- 
tic divinity  would  furnish  us  with  numerous  instances 
of  this  folly ;  and  yet  for  many  ages  all  truth  and  all 
heresy  have  been  determined  by  such  senseless  tests,  and 
by  words  without  ideas :  such  Shibboleths  as  these  have 
decided  the  secular  fates  of  men  :  and  bishoprics  or  burn- 
ing mitres  or  faggots  have  been  the  rewards  of  different 
persons,  according  as  they  pronounced  these  consecrated 
syllables,  or  not  pronounced  them.  To  defend  them 
was  all  piety,  and  pomp,  and  triumph  ;  to  despise  them, 
or  to  doubt  or  to  deny  them,  was  torture  and  death.     A 


12U  OF    STUDY  OR  MEDITATION. 

tliovisand  thank-offerings  are  due  to  that  Providence 
which  has  dehvered  our  age  and  our  nation  from  these 
absurd  iniquities!  O  that  every  specimen  and  shadow 
of  this  madness  were  banished  from  our  schools  and 
churches  in  every  shape! 

III.  Let  not  young  students  apply  tliemselves  to  search 
out  deep,  dark,  and  abstruse  matters,  far  above  their 
reach,  or  spend  tiieir  labour  in  any  peculiar  subjects,  for 
which  they  have  not  the  advantages  of  necessary  ante- 
cedent learning,  or  books,  or  observations.  Let  them 
not  be  too  hasty  to  know  things  above  their  present 
powers,  nor  plunge  their  inquiries  at  once  into  the  depths 
of  knowledge,  nor  begin  to  study  any  science  in  the 
middle  of  it;  this  will  confound  rather  tlian  enlighten  the 
understanding;  sucli  practices  may  happen  to  discourage 
and  jade  the  mind  by  an  attempt  above  its  power;  it  may 
balk  the  understanding,  and  create  an  aversion  to  future 
dilligence,  and  pcrliaps  by  despair  may  forbid  the  pur- 
suit of  that  subject  for  ever  afterwards:  as  a  limb  over- 
strained by  lifting  a  weight  above  its  pov^'cr  may  never 
recover  its  former  agility  and  vigour;  or  if  it  does,  the 
man  may  be  frighted  from  ever  exerting  its  strength 
again. 

IV.  Nor  yet  let  any  student,  on  the  other  hand,  fright 
himself  at  every  turn  with  insurmountable  difficulties, 
nor  imagine  that  the  truth  is  wrapt  up  in  impenetrable 
darkness.  These  are  furmidable  spectres  which  the  un- 
derstanding raises  sometimes  to  flatter  its  own  laziness. 
Those  things  which  in  a  remote  and  confuted  view  seem 
very  obscure  and  perplexed  may  be  approached  by  gentle 
and  regular  steps,  and  may  then  unfold  and  explain 
themselves  at  large  to  the  eye.  The  hardest  problems 
in  geometry,  and  the  most  intricate  schemes  or  diagrams, 
may  be  explicated  and  understood  step  by  step;  every 
great  mathematician  bears  a  constant  witness  to  this 
observation. 

V.  In  learning  any  new  thing,  there  should  be  as 
little  as  possible  first  proposed  to  the  mind  at  once,  and 
that  being  understood  and  fully  mastered,  proceed  then 
to  the  next  adjoining  part  yet  unknown.  This  is  a  slow, 
but  safe  and  sure  way  to  arrive  at  knowledge.     If  the 


OF  STUDY  OR  MEDITATION.  121 

mind  apply  itself  at  first  to  easier  subjects,  and  things 
near  akin  to  what  is  already  known,  and  then  advance 
to  the  more  remote  and  knotty  parts  of  knowledge  by 
slow  degrees,  it  would  be  able  in  this  manner  to  cope 
with  great  ditficulties,  and  prevail  over  them  with  amaz- 
ing and  happy  success. 

Mathon  happened  to  dip  into  the  last  two  chapters  of 
a  new  book  of  geometry  and  mensuration  as  soon  as  he 
saw  it,  and  was  frighted  with  the  complicated  diagrams 
whicli  he  found  there,  about  the  frustums  of  cones  and 
pyramids,  &c.  and  some  deep  demonstrations  among 
conic  sections;  he  shut  the  book  again  in  despair,  and 
imagined  none  but  a  Sir  Isaac  Newton  was  ever  fit  to 
read  it.  But  his  tutor  happily  persuaded  him  to  begin 
the  first  pages  about  lines  and  angles;  and  he  found  such 
surprising  pleasure  in  three  weeks  time  in  the  victories 
he  daily  obtained,  that  at  last  he  became  one  of  the 
chief  geometers  of  his  age. 

VI.  Engage  not  tiie  mind  in  the  intense  pursuit  of 
too  many  things  at  once;  especially  such  as  have  no  re- 
lation to  one  another.  This  will  be  ready  to  distract 
the  understanding,  and  hinder  it  from  attaining  perfec- 
tion in  any  one  subject  of  study.  Such  a  practice  gives 
a  slight  smattering  of  several  sciences,  without  any  solid 
and  substantial  knowledge  of  them,  and  without  any- 
real  and  valuable  improvement;  and  though  two  or  three 
sorts  of  study  may  be  usefully  carried  on  at  once,  to 
entertain  the  mind  with  variety,  that  it  may  not  be  over- 
tired with  one  sort  of  thoughts,  yet  a  multitude  of  sub- 
jects will  too  much  distract  the  attention,  and  weaken 
the  application  of  the  mind  to  any  one  of  them. 

Where  two  or  three  sciences  are  pursued  at  the  same 
time,  if  one  of  them  be  dry,  abstracted,  and  unpleasant, 
as  logic,  metaphysics,  law,  languages,  let  another  be 
more  entertaining  and  agreeable,  to  secure  the  mind  from 
weariness  and  aversion  to  study.  Delight  should  be  in- 
termingled with  labour  as  far  as  possible,  to  allure  us  to 
bear  the  fatigue  of  dry  studies  the  better.  Poetry,  prac- 
tical mathematics,  history.  Sic.  are  generally  esteemed 
entertaining  studies,  and  may  be  happily  used  for  this 
purpose.     Thus  while  we  relieve  a  dull  and  heavy  hour 

u 


122  OF  STUDY  OR  MEDITATION. 

by  some  alluring  employments  of  the  mind,  our  very 
diversions  enrich  our  understandings,  and  our  pleasure 
is  turned  into  profit. 

XII.  In  the  pursuit  of  every  valuable  subject  of  knowl- 
edge, keep  the  end  always  in  your  eye,  and  be  not  di- 
verted from  it  by  every  petty  triJle  you  meet  with  in  the 
way.  Some  persons  have  such  a  wandering  genius 
that  they  are  ready  to  pursue  every  incidental  theme  or 
occasional  idea,  till  they  have  lost  sight  of  the  original 
subject.  These  are  the  men  who,  when  they  are  en- 
gaged in  conversation,  prolong  their  story  bj'  dwelling 
on  every  incident,  and  swell  tlieir  narrative  with  long 
parentheses,  till  they  have  lost  their  first  designs;  like  a 
man  wiio  is  sent  in  quest  of  some  great  treasure,  but  he 
steps  aside  to  gather  every  flower  he  finds,  or  stands  still 
to  dig  up  every  shining  pebble  he  meets  with  in  his  way, 
till  the  treasure  is  forgotten  and  never  found. 

VIII.  Exert  your  care,  skill,  and  diligence,  about 
every  subject  and  every  question,  in  a  just  proportion 
to  the  importance  of  it,  together  with  the  danger  and 
bad  consequences  of  ignorance  or  error  therein.  Many 
excellent  advantages  flow  from  this  one  direction: 

1.  Tliis  rule  will  teach  you  to  be  very  careful  in  gain- 
ing some  general  and  fundamental  truth  both  in  philoso- 
phy, and  religion,  and  in  human  life;  because  they  are 
of  the  highest  moment,  and  conduct  our  thoughts  with 
ease  into  a  thousand  inferior  and  particular  propositions. 
Such  is  that  great  principle  in  natural  philosophy — the 
doctrine  of  gravitation,  or  mutual  tendency  of  ail  bodies 
towards  each  other,  which  Sir  Isaac  Newton  has  so  well 
established,  and  from  which  he  has  drawn  the  solution 
of  a  multitude  of  appearances  in  the  heavenly  bodies  as 
well  as  on  earth. 

Such  is  that  golden  principle  of  morality  which  our 
blessed  Lord  has  given  us — Do  that  to  others  which  you 
think  just  and  reasonal)le  that  others  should  do  to  you, 
which  is  almost  sufficient  in  itself  to  solve  all  cases  of 
conscience  wliich  relate  to  our  neighbour. 

Such  are  those  principles  in  religion — that  a  rational 
creature  is  accountable  to  his  Maker  for  all  his  actions 
— that  the  soul  of  man  is  immortal — that  there  is  a  fu- 


OF  STUDY  OR  MEDITATION.  123 

ture  state  of  happiness  and  of  misery  depend ingr  on  out 
behaviour  in  the  present  life,  on  which  all  our  religious 
practices  are  built  or  supported. 

We  should  be  very  curious  in  examining  all  proposi- 
tions that  pretend  to  this  honour  of  being  general  prin- 
ciples: and  vie  should  not  without  just  evidence  admit 
into  this  rank  mere  matters  of  common  fame,  or  com- 
monly received  opinions;  no,  nor  the  general  determina- 
tion of  the  learned,  or  the  established  articles  of  any 
church  or  nation,  &c.  for  there  are  many  learned  pre- 
sumptions, many  synodical  and  national  mistakes,  many 
established  falselioods,  as  well  as  many  vulgar  errors, 
wherein  multitudes  of  men  have  followed  one  another 
for  whole  ages  almost  blindfold.  It  is  of  great  impor- 
tance for  every  man  to  be  careful  that  these  general 
principles  are  just  and  true;  for  one  error  may  lead  us 
into  thousands,  which  will  naturally  follow,  if  once  a 
leading  falsehood  be  admitted. 

2.  This  rule  will  direct  us  to  be  more  careful  about 
practical  points  than  mere  speculations,  since  they  are 
commonly  of  mucli  greater  use  and  consequence:  there- 
fore the  speculations  of  algebra,  the  doctrine  of  infini- 
ties, and  the  quadrature  of  curves  in  matliematical  learn- 
ing, together  with  all  the  train  of  theorems  in  natural 
philosophy,  should  by  no  means  entrench  upon  our  stu- 
dies of  morality  and  virtue.  Ev6n  in  the  science  of 
divinity  itself,  the  sublimest  speculations  of  it  are  not 
of  that  worth  and  value,  as  the  rules  of  duty  towards 
God  and  towards  men. 

3.  In  matters  of  practice  we  should  be  most  careful 
to  fix  our  end  right,  and  wisely  to  determine"  the  scope 
at  which  we  aim,  because  that  is  to  direct  us  in  the 
choice  and  use  of  all  the  means  to  attain  it.  If  our  end 
be  wrong,  all  our  labour  in  the  means  will  be  vain,  or 
perhaps  so  much  the  more  pernicious  as  they  are  bet- 
ter suited  to  attain  that  mistaken  end.  If  mere  sensible . 
pleasure,  or  human  grandeur,  or  wealth,  be  our  chief 
end,  we  shall  choose  means  contrary  to  piety  and  virtue, 
and  proceed  apace  towards  real  misery. 

4.  Tliis  rule  will  engage  our  best  powers  and  deepest 
attention  in  the  affairs  of  religion,  and  things  that  re- 


124  OF   STUDY   OR  MEDITATION. 

late  to  a  future  world:  for  those  propositions  which  ex- 
tend only  to  the  interest  of  the  present  life,  are  but  of 
small  importance  when  compared  with  those  that  have 
influence  upon  our  everlasting  concernments. 

5.  And  even  in  the  affairs  of  religion,  if  we  walk  by 
tlie  conduct  of  this  rule,  we  shall  be  much  more  labori- 
ous in  our  inquiries  into  the  necessary  and  fundamental 
articles  of  faith  and  practice,  than  the  lesser  appendices 
of  Christianity.  The  great  doctrines  of  repentance  to- 
wards God,  faith  in  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  with  love  to 
men,  and  universal  holiness,  will  employ  our  best  and 
brightest  hours  and  meditations,  while  the  mint,  anise, 
and  cummin,  the  gestures,  and  vestures,  and  fiinges  of 
religion,  will  be  regarded  no  fartlier  than  they  have  a 
plain  and  evident  connexion  with  faith  and  love,  with 
holiness  and  peace. 

6.  This  rule  will  make  us  solicitous  not  only  to  avoid 
such  errors,  wliose  influence  would  spread  wide  into  the 
whole  scheme  of  our  own  knowledge  and  practice,  but 
such  mistakes  also  whose  influence  would  be  yet  more 
extensive  and  injurious  to  others  as  well  as  to  ourselves: 
porliaps  to  many  persons  or  many  families,  to  a  whole 
church,  a  town,  a  country,  or  a  kingdom.  Upon  this 
account,  persons  who  are  called  to  instruct  others,  who 
are  raised  to  any  eminence  either  in  church  or  state, 
ought  to  be  careful  ih  settling  their  principles  in  matters 
relating  to  the  civil,  the  moral,  or  the  religious  life,  lest 
a  mistake  of  theirs  should  diffuse  wide  mischief,  sliould 
draw  along  with  it  most  pernicious  consequences,  and 
perhaps  extend  to  following  generations. 

These  are  some  of  the  advantages  wliich  arise  from 
the  eighth  rule,  viz.  Pursue  every  inquiry  and  study  in 
proportion  to  its  real  value  and  iniportance. 

IX.  Have  a  care  lest  some  beloved  notion,  or  some 
darling  science,  so  far  prevail  over  your  mind  as  to  give 
a  sovereign  tincture  to  all  your  other  studies,  and  dis- 
colour all  your  ideas,  like  a  person  in  the  jaundice,  who 
spreads  a  yellow  scene  with  his  eyes  over  all  tiie  objects 
which  he  meets.  I  have  known  a  man  of  peculiar  skill 
in  music,  and  much  devoted  to  that  science,  who  found 
out  a  great  resemblance  of  the  Athanasian  doctrine  of 


OF  STUDY  OR  MEDITATION.  125 

the  Trinity  in  every  single  note,  and  he  thought  it  car- 
ried something  of  argument  in  it  to  prove  that  doctrine. 
I  have  read  of  another  who  accommodated  the  seven 
days  of  the  first  week  of  creation  to  seven  notes  of  mu- 
sic, and  thus  the  v/hole  creation  became  harmonious. 

Under  this  influence,  derived  from  mathematical  stu- 
dies, some  have  been  tempted  to  cast  all  tiieir  logical, 
their  metaphysical,  and  their  theological  and  moral 
learning  into  the  method  of  mathematicians,  and  bring 
every  thing  relating  to  those  abstracted,  or  those  prac- 
tical sciences,  under  theorems,  problems,  postulates, 
scholiums,  corollaries,  &c.  whereas,  the  matter  ought 
always  to  direct  the  method;  for  all  subjects  or  matters 
of  thought  cannot  be  moulded  or  subdued  to  one  form. 
Neither  the  rules  for  the  conduct  of  the  understanding, 
nor  the  doctrines  nor  duties  of  religion  and  virtue,  can 
be  exhibited  naturally  in  figures  and  diagrams.  Things 
are  to  be  considered  as  they  are  in  themselves;  their  na- 
tures are  inflexible,  and  their  natural  relations  unaltera- 
ble; and  therefore,  in  order  to  conceive  them  aright,  we 
must  bring  our  understandings  to  things,  and  not  pre- 
tend to  bend  and  strain  things  to  comport  with  our  fan- 
cies and  forms. 

X.  Suffer  not  any  beloved  study  to  prejudice  your 
mind  so  far  in  favour  of  it  as  to  despise  all  other  learn- 
ing. This  is  a  fault  of  some  little  souls,  who  have  got 
a  smattering  of  astronomy,  chymistry,  metaphysics,  his- 
tory, &c.  and  for  want  of  a  due  acquaintance  with  other 
sciences,  make  a  scofl'at  them  all  in  comparison  of  their 
favourite  science.  Their  understandings  are  hereby 
cooped  up  in  narrow  bounds,  so  that  they  never  look 
abroad  into  other  provinces  of  the  intellectual  world, 
which  are  more  beautiful,  perhaps,  and  more  fruitful 
than  their  own:  if  they  would  search  a  little  into  other 
sciences,  they  miglit  not  only  find  treasures  of  new 
knowledge,  but  might  be  furnished  also  with  rich  hints 
of  thought,  and  glorious  assistances  to  cultivate  that  ve- 
ry province  to  which  they  have  confined  themselves. 

Here  I  would  always  give  some  grains  of  allowance 
to  the  sacred  science  of  theology,  wiiich  is  incompara- 
bly superior  to  all  the  rest,  as  it  teaches  us  the  knowl- 
11*^ 


126  OF   STUDY  OR  MEDITATION. 

ed^e  of  God,  and  the  way  to  his  eternal  favour.  This 
is  that  noble  study  which  is  every  man's  duty,  and  eve- 
ry one  who  can  be  called  a  rational  creature  is  capable 
of  it. 

This  is  that  science  which  would  truly  enlarge  the 
minds  of  men,  were  it  studied  with  that  freedom,  that 
unbiased  love  of  truth,  and  that  sacred  charity  which  it 
teaches;  and  if  it  were  not  made,  contrary  to  its  own 
nature,  the  occasion  of  strife,  faction,  malicrnity,  a  nar- 
row spirit,  and  unreasonable  impositions  on  the  mind 
and  practice.     Let  tliis,  tlierefore,  stand  always  chief. 

XI.  Let  every  particular  study  Jiave  due  and  proper 
time  assitrned  it,  and  let  not  a  favourite  science  prevail 
with  you  to  lay  out  sucli  hours  upon  it,  as  ouo-ht  to  be 
employed  upon  the  more  necessary  and  more  imp(<rlant 
atTairs  or  studies  of  your  profession.  When  you  have, 
accordinrr  to  the  best  of  your  disci etion,  and  according- 
to  the  circumstances  of  your  life,  fixed  proper  hours  for 
particular  studies,  endeavour  to  keep  to  tiiose  rules;  not, 
indeed,  with  a  superstitious  preciseuess,  but  with  some 
good  degress  of  a  reo-ular  constancy.  Order  and  nietiiod 
in  a  course  of  study  saves  much  time,  and  makes  large 
improvements.  Such  a  fixation  of  certain  hours  will 
have  a  happy  influence  to  secure  you  from  trifling  and 
wasting  away  your  minutes  in  impertinence. 

Xn.  Do  not  apply  yourself  to  any  one  study  at  one 
time  longer  than  the  mind  is  capable  of  giving  a  close 
attention  to  it  without  weariness  or  wandering.  Do  not 
over  fatigue  the  spirits  at  any  time,  lest  the  mind  be 
seized  with  a  lassitude,  and  thereby  be  tempted  to  nause- 
ate and  grow  tired  of  a  particular  subject  before  you 
have  finished  it. 

XIII.  In  the  beginning  of  your  application  to  any 
new  subject  be  not  too  uneasy  under  present  difficulties 
that  occur,  nor  too  importunate  and  impatient  for  an- 
swers and  solutions  to  any  questions  that  arise.  Per- 
haps a  little  more  study,  a  little  further  acquaintance 
with  the  subject,  a  little  time  and  experience,  will  solve 
those  difficulties,  untie  the  knot,  and  make  your  doubts 
vanish:  especially  if  you  are  under  the  instruction  of  a 
tutor,  he  can  inform  you  that  your  inquiries  are  perhaps 


OF  STUDY  OR  MEDITATION.  127 

too  early,  and  that  you  have  not  yet  learned  those  prin- 
ciples upon  which  the  solution  of  such  a  difficulty 
depends. 

XIV.  Do  not  expect  to  arrive  at  certainty  in  every 
subject  which  you  pursue.  There  are  a  hundred  tilings 
wherein  we  mortals  in  this  dark  and  imperfect  state 
must  be  content  with  probability,  where  our  best  light 
and  reasonings  will  reach  no  farther.  We  must  balance 
arguments  as  justly  as  we  can,  and  where  we  cannot 
find  weight  enough  on  either  side  to  determine  the  scale 
with  sovereign  force  and  assurance,  we  must  content 
ourselves,  perliaps,  with  a  small  preponderation.  This 
will  give  us  a  probable  opinion,  and  those  probabilities 
are  sufficient  for  tlie  daily  determination  of  a  thousand 
actions  in  human  life,  and  many  times  even  in  matters 
of  religion. 

It  is  admirably  well  expressed  by  a  late  writer — 
"When  there  is  a  great  strength  of  argument  set  before 
us,  if  we  will  refuse  to  do  wliat  appears  most  fit  for  us, 
till  every  little  objection  is  removed,  we  shall  never  take 
one  wise  resolution  as  long  as  we  live." 

Suppose  I  had  been  honestly  and  long  searching  what 
religion  I  should  choose,  and  yet  I  could  not  find  that 
the  argument  in  defence  of  Christianity  arose  to  com- 
plete certainty,  but  went  only  so  far  as  to  give  me  a 
probable  evidence  of  the  truth  of  it;  thougli  many  diffi- 
culties still  remain,  yet  I  should  think  myself  obliged 
to  receive  and  practise  that  religion,  for  the  God  of  na- 
ture and  reason  has  bound  us  to  assent  and  act  according 
to  the  best  evidence  we  have,  even  though  it  be  not  abso- 
lute and  complete;  and  as  he  is  our  supreme  judge,  his 
abounding  goodness  and  equity  will  approve  and  acquit 
the  man  whose  conscience  honestly  and  willinojy  seeks 
the  best  light,  and  obeys  it  as  far  as  he  can  discover  it. 

But  in  matters  of  great  importance  in  religion,  let 
him  join  all  due  diligence  with  earnest  and  humble 
prayer  for  divine  aid  in  his  inquiries;  such  prayer  and 
such  diligence  as  eternal  concerns  require,  and  such  as 
he  may  plead  with  courage  before  the  judge  of  all. 

XV.  Endeavour  to  apply  every  speculative  study  as 
far  as  possible,  to  some  practical  use,  that  both  y  ourself 


128  OF   STUDY  OR  MEDITATION. 

and  others  may  be  the  better  for  it.  Inquiries  even  in 
natural  philosophy  should  not  be  mere  amusement,  and 
much  less  in  tiie  affairs  of  religion.  Ptesearches  into  the 
springs  of  natural  bodies  and  their  motions  should  lead 
men  to  invent  happy  methods  for  the  ease  and  conveni- 
ence of  human  life;  or  at  least  they  should  be  improved 
to  awaken  us  to  admire  the  wonderous  wisdom  and  con- 
trivances of  God  our  creator  in  all  the  works  of  nature. 

If  v^e  pursue  mathematical  speculations,  they  will 
inure  us  to  attend  closely  to  any  subject,  to  seek  and 
gain  clear  ideas,  to  distinguish  truth  from  falsehood,  to 
judge  justly,  and  to  argue  strongly;  and  these  studies  do 
more  directly  furnish  us  with  all  the  various  rules  of 
those  useful  arts  of  life,  viz.  measuring,  building,  sail- 
ing, &c. 

Even  our  very  inquiries  and  disputations  about  vacuum 
or  space,  and  atoms,  about  incommensurable  quantities, 
and  finite  divisibility  of  matter,  and  eternal  duration, 
which  seems  to  be  purely  speculative,  will  show  us  some 
good  pi'actical  lessons,  wnill  lead  us  to  see  the  weakness 
of  our  nature,  and  should  teach  us  liumility  in  argu- 
ments of  divine  subjects  and  matters  of  sacred  revelation. 
This  should  guard  us  against  rejecting  any  doctrine 
which  is  expressly  and  evidently  reveai'^d,  though  we 
cannot  fully  understand  it.  It  is  good  sometimes  lo  lose 
and  bewilder  ourselves  in  such  studies  for  this  very 
reason,  and  to  attain  this  practical  advantage,  this  im- 
provement in  tiue  modesty  and  spirit. 

XVI.  Though  we  should  always  be  ready  to  change 
our  sentiments  of  things  upon  just  conviction  of  their 
falsehood,  yet  there  is  not  the  same  necessity  of  chang- 
ing our  accustomed  methods  of  reading  or  study  and 
practice,  even  though  we  have  not  been  led  at  first  into 
the  happiest  method.  Our  thought  may  be  true,  though 
we  may  have  hit  upon  an  improper  order  of  thinking. 
Truth  does  not  always  depend  upon  the  most  convenient 
method.  There  may  be  a  certain  form  and  order  in 
which  we  have  long  accustomed  ourselves  to  range  our 
ideas  and  notions,  which  may  be  best  for  us  now,  though 
it  was  not  originally  best  in  itself  The  inconveniences  of 


OF  FIXING  THE    ATTENTION.  129 

rchemging  may  be  much  greater  than  the  conveniences 

)We  could  obtain  by  a  new  method 

As  for  instance,  if  a  man  in  his  younger  days  has 

r  ranged  all  his  sentiments  in  theology  in  the  method  of 
Ames's  Medulla  Theologiae,  or  Bisliop  Usher's  Body  ot 
Divinity,  it  may  be  much  more  natural  and  easy  for  him 
to  continue  to  dispose  all  his  further  acquirements  in 
the  same  order,  though  perhaps  neither  of  those  treatises 

I  are  in  tliemselves  written  in  the  most  perfect  method. 

•So  when  we  have  long  fixed  our  cases  of  shelves  in  a 
library,  and  ranged  our  books  in  any  particular  order, 
viz.  according  to  their  languages,  or  according  to  their 

•  subjects,  or  according  to  tiie  alpliabetical  names  of  the 

•  authors,  we  are  perfectly  well  acquainted  with  the  order 
in  which  they  now  stand,  and  we  can  find  any  particular 
book  which  we  seek,  or  add  a  new  book  which  we  have 
purchased,  with  much  greater  ease  than  we  can  do  in 
finer  cases  of  shelves  wliere  the  books  were  ranged  in 
any  different  manner  whatsoever;  any  ditferent  position 
of  the  volumes  would  be  new  and  strange,  and  trouble- 
some to  us,  and  would  not  countervail  the  inconveni- 
ences of  a  change. 

So  if  a  man  of  forty  years  old  has  been  taught  to  hold 
his  pen  awkwardly  in  his  youth,  and  yet  writes  suffi- 
ciently well  for  all  the  purposes  of  his  station,  it  is  not 
wortli  while  to  teach  him  now  the  most  accurate  methods 
of  learnmg  tliat  instrument;  for  this  would  create  him 
more  trouble  without  equal  advantage,  and  perhaps  he 
might  never  attain  to  write  better  after  he  has  placed 
his  fingers  perfectly  right  with  this  new  accuracy. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


OF  FIXING    THE  ATTENTION. 


A  STUDENT  should  labour,  by  all  proper  methods,  to 
acquire  a  study  fixation  of  thought.  Attention  is  a  very 
necessary  thing  in  order  to  improve  our  minds.  The 
evidence  of  truth  does  not  always  appear  immediately. 


130  OF  FIXING  THE   ATTENTION. 

nor  strike  the  soul  at  first  sight.  It  is  by  long  attention 
and  inspection  that  we  arrive  at  evidence,  and  it  is 
for  want  of  it  we  judge  falsely  of  many  things.  We 
make  haste  to  determine  upon  a  slight  and  a  sudden 
view,  we  confirm  our  guesses  which  arise  from  a  glance, 
we  pass  a  judgment  while  we  have  but  a  confused  or 
obscure  perception,  and  thus  plunge  ourselves  into  mis 
takes.  This  is  like  a  man  who,  walking  in  a  mist,  oi 
being  at  a  great  distance  from  any  visible  object  (suppose 
a  tree,  a  man,  a  horse,  or  a  church,)  judges  much  amiss 
of  the  figure,  and  situation,  and  colours  of  it,  and  some- 
times takes  one  for  the  other;  whereas,  if  he  would  but 
withliold  his  judgment  till  he  came  nearer  to  it,  or  stay 
till  clearer  light  comes,  and  then  would  fix  his  eyes  longer 
upon  it,  he  would  secure  himself  from  those  mistakes. 

Now,  in  order  to  gain  a  greater  facility  of  attention, 
we  may  observe  these  rules: — 

I.  Get  a  good  liking  to  the  study  of  knowledge  you 
would  pursue.  We  may  observe,  that  there  is  not  much 
difficulty  in  confining  liie  mind  to  contemplate  what  we 
have  a  great  desire  to  know;  and  especially  if  they  are 
matters  of  sense,  or  ideas  which  paint  themselves  upon 
the  fancy.  It  is  but  acquiring  a  hearty  good  will  and 
resolution  to  search  out  and  survey  the  various  properties 
and  parts  of  such  objects,  and  our  attention  will  be  en- 
gaged, if  there  be  any  delight  or  diversion  in  the  study 
or  contemplation  of  them.  Therefore  mathematical 
studies  have  a  strange  influence  towards  fixing  the  at- 
tention of  the  mind,  and  giving  a  steadiness  to  a  wander- 
ing disposition,  because  they  deal  much  in  lines,  figures, 
and  numbers,  which  aflTect  and  please  the  sense  and  im- 
agmation.  Histories  have  a  strong  tendency  the  same 
way,  for  they  engage  the  soul  by  a  variety  of  sensible 
occurrences;  when  it  hath  begun,  it  knows  not  how  to 
leave  off;  it  longs  to  know  the  final  event,  through  a 
natural  curiosity  that  belongs  to  mankind.  Voyages 
and  travels,  and  accounts  of  strange  countries  and  strange 
appearances,  will  assist  in  this  work.  This  sort  of  study 
detains  t!ie  mind  by  the  perpetual  occurrence  and  ex- 
pectation of  something  new,  and  that  which  may  grate- 
fully strike  the  imagination. 


OF  FIXING  THE  ATTENTION.  131 

II.  Sometimes  we  may  make  use  of  sensible  things 
and  corporeal  images  for  the  illustration  of  those  notions, 
which  are  more  abstracted  and  intellectual.  Therefore 
diagrams  greatly  assist  the  mind  in  astronomy  and  phi- 
losophy; and  the  emblems  of  virtues  and  vices  may  hap- 
pily teach  children,  and  pleasingly  impress  those  useful 
moral  ideas  on  young  minds,  which  perhaps  might  be 
conveyed  to  them  with  much  more  difficulty  by  mere 
moral  and  abstracted  discourses. 

I  confess,  in  this  practice  of  representing  moral  sub- 
jects by  pictures,  we  should  be  cautious  lest  we  so  far 
immerse  the  mind  in  corporeal  images,  as  to  render  it  unfit 
to  take  in  an  abstracted  and  intellectual  idea,  or  cause 
it  to  form  wrong  conceptions  of  immaterial  things.  This 
practice,  tlierefore,  is  rather  to  be  used  at  first,  in  order 
to  get  a  fixed  iiabit  of  attention,  and  in  some  cases  only; 
but  it  can  never  be  our  constant  way  and  method  of 
pursuing  all  moral,  abstracted,  and  spiritual  themes. 

Ill  Apply  yourself  to  those  studies,  and  read  those 
authors  who  draw  out  their  subjects  into  a  perpetual 
chain  of  connected  reasonings,  wherein  the  fullowing 
parts  of  the  discourse  are  naturally  and  easily  derived 
from  those  which  go  before.  Several  of  the  mathemati- 
cal sciences,  if  not  all,  are  happily  useful  for  this  pur- 
pose. This  will  render  the  labour  of  study  delightful  to 
a  rational  mind,  and  will  fix  the  powers  of  the  under- 
standing with  strong  attention  to  their  proper  operations 
by  the  very  pleasure  of  it.  Labor  ipse  voluptas  is  a  happy 
proposition  wheresoever  it  can  be  applied. 

IV.  Do  not  choose  your  constant  place  of  study  by  the 
fmery  of  the  prospects,  or  the  most  various  and  enter- 
taining scenes  of  sensible  tilings.  Too  much  light,  or  a 
variety  of  objects  which  strike  the  eye  or  the  ear,  espe- 
cially while  they  are  ever  in  motion  or  often  changing, 
have  a  natural  and  powerful  tendency  to  steal  away  the 
mind  too  often  from  its  steady  pursuit  of  any  subject 
which  we  contemplate;  and  thereby  the  soul  gets  a  habit 
of  silly  curiosity  and  impertinence,  of  trifling  and  wan- 
dering. Vagario  thought  himself  furnished  with  the 
best  closet  for  his  studies  among  the  beauties,  gaieties, 
and  diversions  of  Kensington  or  Hampton  Court;  but 


132  OP  FIXING  THE  ATTENTION. 

after  seven  years  professing  to  pursue  learning,  he  was 
a  mere  novice  still. 

V.  Be  not  in  too  much  haste  to  come  to  the  determi- 
nation of  a  difficult  or  important  point.  Think  it  worth 
your  waiting  to  find  out  truth.  Do  not  give  your  assent 
up  to  either  side  of  a  question  too  soon,  merely  on  this 
account,  that  the  study  of  it  is  long  and  difficult.  Rather 
be  contented  with  ignorance  for  a  season,  and  continue 
in  suspense  till  your  attention,  and  meditation,  and  due 
labour,  have  found  out  sufficient  evidence  on  one  side. 
Some  are  so  fond  to  know  a  great  deal  at  once,  and 
love  to  talk  of  things  with  freedom  and  boldness  before 
they  truly  understand  them,  that  they  scarcely  ever  al- 
low themselves  attention  enough  to  search  the  matter 
through  and  through. 

VI.  Have  a  care  of  indulging  the  more  sensual  pas- 
sions and  appetites  of  animal  nature;  they  are  great  ene- 
mies to  attention.  Let  not  the  mind  of  a  student  be 
under  the  influence  of  any  warm  affection  to  things  of 
sense,  when  he  comes  to  engage  in  the  search  of  truth, 
or  the  improvement  of  his  understanding.  A  person 
under  the  power  of  love,  or  fear,  or  anger,  great  pain, 
or  deep  sorrow,  hath  so  little  government  of  his  soul, 
that  he  cannot  keep  it  attentive  to  the  proper  subject  of 
his  meditation.  The  passions  call  away  the  thoughts 
with  incessant  importunity  towards  the  object  that  ex- 
cited them;  and  if  we  indulge  the  frequent  rise  and  rov- 
ing of  passions,  we  shall  thereby  procure  an  unsteady 
and  unattentive  habit  of  mind. 

Yet  this  one  exception  must  be  admitted,  viz.  If  we 
can  be  so  happy  as  to  engage  any  passion  of  the  soul  on 
the  side  of  the  particular  study  which  we  are  pursuing, 
it  may  have  great  influence  to  fix  the  attention  more 
strongly  to  it. 

VII.  It  is,  therefore,  very  useful  to  fix  and  engage  the 
mind  in  the  pursuit  of  any  study  by  a  consideration  of 
the  divine  pleasures  of  truth  and  knowledge — by  a  sense 
of  our  duty  to  God-  -by  a  delight  in  the  exercise  of  our 
intellectual  faculties — by  the  hope  of  future  service  to 
our  fellow  creatures,  and  glorious  advantage  to  ourselves 
both  in  this  world  and  that  which  is  to  come.     These 


OF  ENLARGING  THE,  &C.  133 

thoughts,  though  they  may  move  our  affections,  yet 
they  do  it  with  a  proper  influence:  these  will  rather  as- 
sist and  promote  our  attention,  than  disturb  or  divert  it 
from  the  subject  of  our  present  and  proper  meditations. 
A  soul  inspired  with  the  fondest  love  of  truth,  and  the 
warmest  aspirations  after  sincere  felicity,  and  celestial 
beatitude,  will  keep  all  its  powers  attentive  to  the  inces- 
sant pursuit  of  them:  passion  is  then  refined  and  con- 
secrated to  its  divinest  purposes. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

OF  ENLARGING  THE  CAPACITY  OF  THE  MIND. 

There  are  three  things  which  in  an  especial  manner 
go  to  make  up  that  amplitude  or  capacity  of  mind  which 
is  one  of  the  noblest  characters  belonging  to  the  under- 
standing. 

1.  When  the  mind  is  ready  to  take  in  great  and  sub- 
lime ideas  without  pain  or  difficulty. 

2.  Wlien  the  mind  is  free  to  receive  new  and  strange 
ideas,  upon  just  evidence,  without  great  surprise  or 
aversion. 

3.  When  tlie  mind  is  able  to  conceive  or  survey  many 
ideas  a,t.once  without  confusion,  and  to  form  a  true  judg 
ment  derived  from  that  extensive  survey. 

The  person  wiio  wants  either  of  these  characters  may, 
in  that  respect,  be  said  to  have  a  narrow  genius.  Let  us 
diffuse  our  meditations  a  little  upon  this  subject. 

I.  That  is  an  ample  and  capacious  mind  which  is 
ready  to  take  in  vast  and  sublime  ideas  without  pain  or 
difficulty.  Persons  who  have  never  been  used  to  con- 
verse with  any  thing  but  the  common,  little,  and  obvi- 
ous affairs  of  hfe,  have  acquired  such  a  narrow  or  con- 
tracted habit  of  soul,  that  they  are  not  able  to  stretch 
their  intellects  wide  enough  to  admit  large  and  noble 
thoughts;  they  are  ready  to  make  their  domestic,  daily, 
and  familiar  images  of  things  the  measure  of  all  tiiat  is, 
and  all  that  can  be. 
12 


134  OF  ENLARGING  THE 

Talk  to  them  of  the  vast  dimensions  of  the  planetary 
worlds;  tell  them  that  the  star  called  Jupiter  is  a  solid 
globe,  two  hundred  and  twenty  times  bigaer  tlian  our 
earth;  that  the  sun  is  a  vast  g'lobe  of  tire,  above  a 
thousand  times  big-ger  than  Jupiter,  that  is,  two  hundred 
and  twenty  thousand  times  bigger  than  the  earth;  that 
the  distance  from  the  earth  to  the  sun  is  eighty-one 
millions  of  miles;  and  that  a  cannon  bullet  shot  from  the 
earth  would  not  arrive  at  the  nearest  of  the  fixed  stars 
in  some  hundreds  of  years:  they  cannot  bear  the  belief 
of  it;  but  hear  all  these  glorious  labours  of  astronomy  as 
a  mere  idle  romance. 

Inform  them  of  the  amazing  swiftness  of  the  motion 
of  some  of  the  smallest  or  the  biggest  bodies  in  nature; 
assure  them,  acording  to  the  best  philosopliy,  that  the 
planet  Venus  (i.  e.  our  morning  or  evening  star,  which 
is  near  as  big  as  our  earth,)  thougli  it  seems  to  move 
from  its  place  but  a  few  yards  in  a  month,  does  really 
fly  seventy  thousand  miles  in  an  hour;  tell  tiiem  that 
the  rays  of  light  shoot  from  the  sun  to  our  earth  at  the 
rate  of  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  miles  in  the 
second  of  a  minute;  they  stand  aghast  at  such  sort  of 
talk,  and  believe  it  no  more  tlian  the  tales  of  giants  fifty 
yards  high,  and  the  rabbinical  fables  of  Leviathan,  who 
every  day  swallows  a  fish  of  three  miles  long,  and  is 
thus  preparing  himself  to  be  the  food  and  entertainment 
of  the  blessed  at  the  feast  of  Paradise. 

These  unenlarged  souls  are  in  the  same  manner  dis- 
gusted with  the  wonders  which  the  microscope  has  dis- 
covered concerning  tiie  shape,  the  limbs,  and  motions  of 
ten  thousand  little  animals,  whose  united  bulk  would 
not  equal  a  pepper- corn:  they  are  ready  to  give  the  lie 
to  all  the  improvements  of  our  senses  by  tlie  invention 
of  a  variety  of  glasses,  and  will  scarcely  believe  any 
thing  beyond  the  testimony  of  their  naked  eye  without 
the  assistance  of  art. 

Now,  if  we  would  attempt  in  a  learned  manner  to  re- 
lieve the  minds  that  labour  under  this  defect: 

1.  It  is  useful  to  begin  with  some  first  principles  of 
geometry,  and  lead  them  onward  by  degrees  to  the  doc- 
trine of  quantities  which  are  incommensurable,  or  which 


CAPACITY  OF  THE  MIND.  135 

will  admit  of  no  common  measure,  though  it  be  ever 
so  small.  By  tills  means  they  will  see  the  necessity  of 
admitting  the  infinite  divisibility  of  quantity  or  matter. 
This  same  doctrine  may  also  be  proved  to  their  un- 
derstandings, and  almost  to  their  senses,  by  some  easier 
arguments  in  a  more  obvious  manner.  As  the  very 
opening  and  closing  of  a  pair  of  compasses  will  evidently 
prove,  that  if  tiie  smallest  supposed  part  of  matter  or 
quantity  be  put  between  the  points,  tiiere  will  be  still 
less  and  less  distances  or  quantities  all  the  way  between 
the  legs,  till  you  come  to  the  head  or  joint;  wiierefore 
there  is  no  such  thing  possible  as  the  smallest  quantity. 
But  a  little  acquaintance  with  true  philosophy  and  uiathe- 
matical  learning  would  soon  teach  them  there  are  no 
limits  eitlier  as  to  the  extension  of  space  or  to  the  di- 
vision of  body,  and  would  lead  them  to  believe  there 
are  bodies  amazingly  great  or  small  beyond  their  present 
imagination. 

2.  It  is  proper  also  to  acquaint  them  with  the  circum- 
ference of  our  earth,  which  may  be  proved  by  very  easy 
principles  of  geometry,  geography,  and  astronomy,  to  be 
about  twenty-four  thousand  nhles  round,  as  it  has  been 
actually  found  to  have  this  dimension  by  mariners,  who 
have  sailed  round  it.  Then  let  them  be  taught,  that  in 
every  twenty-four  hours  either  the  sun  and  stars  must 
all  move  round  this  earth,  or  the  earth  must  turn  round 
upon  its  own  axis.  If  the  earth  itself  revolve  thus,  then 
each  house  or  mountain  near  the  equator  must  move  at 
tlie  rate  of  a  thousand  miles  in  an  hour:  but  if,  as  they 
generally  suppose,  the  sun  or  stars  move  round  the  earth, 
then  (the  circumference  of  tlieir  several  orbits  or  spheres 
being  vastly  greater  than  this  earth)  they  must  have  a 
motion  prodigiously  swifter  than  a  thousand  miles  an 
hour.  Such  a  thought  as  this  will  by  degrees  enlarge 
their  minds,  and  they  will  be  taught  even  upon  their 
own  principles  of  the  diurnal  revolutions  of  the  heavens, 
to  take  in  some  of  the  vast  dimensions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  tiieir  spaces  and  motions, 

3.  To  tliis  should  be  added  the  use  of  telescopes,  to 
help  them  to  see  the  distant  wonders  in  the  skies;  and 
microscopes,  which  discover  the  minutest  parts  of  little 


136  OP  ENLARGING  THE 

animals,  and  reveal  some  of  the  finer  and  most  curious 
works  of  nature.  Tiiey  should  be  acquainted  also  with 
some  other  noble  inventions  of  modern  philosophy,  which 
have  a  great  influence  to  enlarge  the  human  under- 
standing, of  which  I  shall  take  occasion  to  speak  more 
under  the  next  head. 

4.  For  the  same  purpose  they  may  be  invited  to  read 
those  parts  of  Milton's  admirable  poem,  entitled  Paradise 
Lost,  where  he  describes  the  armies  and  power  of  angels, 
the  wars  and  the  senate  of  devils,  the  creation  of  this 
earth,  together  with  the  description  of  Heaven,  Hell, 
and  Paradise. 

It  must  be  granted  that  poesy  often  deals  in  these 
vast  and  sublime  ideas.  And  even  if  the  subject  or 
matter  of  the  poem  doth  not  require  such  amazing  and 
extensive  thoughts,  yet  tropes  and  figures,  which  are 
some  of  the  main  powers  and  beauties  of  poesy,  do  so 
gloriously  exalt  the  matter,  as  to  give  a  sublime  imagi- 
nation its  proper  relish  and  delight. 

So  when  a  boar  is  chased  in  hunting: 

His  nostrils  flames  expire, 
And  his  red  eyeballs  roll  with  living  fire. 

Dryden. 

When  Ulysses  withholds  and  suppresses  his  resent- 
ment. 

His  wrath  comprest, 
Recoiling,  mutter'd  thunder  in  his  breast. 
Pope. 

But  especially  where  the  subject  is  grand,  the  poet 
fails  not  to  represent  it  in  all  its  grandeur. 

So  when  the  supremacy  of  a  God  is  described: 

He  sees,  with  equal  eye,  as  God  of  all, 
A  hero  perish,  or  a  sparrow  fall; 
Atoms  or  systems  into  ruin  hurl'd, 
And  now  a  bubble  burst,  and  now  a  world. 
Pope. 

These  sorts  of  writing  have  a  natural  tendency  to  en- 
large the  capacity  of  the  mind,  and  make  sublime  ideas 
familiar  to  it.  And  instead  of  running  always  to  the 
ancient  heathen  poesy  with  this  design,  we  may  with 


CAPACITY  OF  THE  MIND.  137 

equal,  if  not  superior  advantage,  apply  ourselves  to  con- 
verse with  some  of  the  best  of  our  modern  poets,  as  well 
as  with  the  writiiig-s  of  the  propliets,  and  the  poetical 
parts  of  the  Bible,  viz.  the  book  of  Job  and  the  Psalms, 
in  which  sacred  authors  we  shall  find  sometimes  more 
sublime  ideas,  more  glorious  descriptions,  more  elevated 
language,  than  tlie  fondest  critics  have  ever  found  in 
any  of  the  heathen  versifiers  either  of  Greece  or  Rome: 
for  the  Eastern  writers  use  and  allow  much  stronger 
figures  and  tropes  than  the  Western. 

Now  there  are  many  and  great  advantages  to  be  de- 
rived from  this  sort  of  enlargement  of  the  mind. 

It  Vv'ill  lead  us  into  more  exalted  apprehensions  of  the 
great  God  our  Creator  than  ever  we  bad  before.  It  will 
entertain  our  thoughts  with  holy  wonder  and  amaze- 
ment, while  we  contemplate  tliat  Being  who  created 
these  various  works  of  surprising  greatness,  and  surpris- 
ing smallness;  who  has  displayed  most  inconceivable 
wisdom  in  the  contrivance  of  all  the  parts,  powers,  and 
motions  of  these  little  animals  invisible  to  the  naked  eye; 
wlio  has  manifested  a  most  divine  extent  of  knowledge, 
power,  and  greatness,  in  forming,  moving,  and  manag- 
ing the  most  extensive  bulk  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and 
in  surveying  and  comprehending  all  those  unmeasura- 
ble  spaces  in  which  they  move.  Fancy,  with  all  her 
images,  is  fatigued  and  overwhelmed  in  following  the 
planetary  worlds  through  such  immense  stages,  such 
astonishing  journeys  as  these  are,  and  resigns  its  place 
to  the  pure  intellect,  which  learns  by  degrees  to  take  in 
such  ideas  as  these,  and  to  adore  its  Creator  with  new 
and  sublime  devotion. 

And  not  only  are  we  taught  to  form  juster  ideas  of 
the  great  God  by  these  methods,  but  this  enlargement 
of  the  mind  carries  us  on  to  nobler  conceptions  of  his  in- 
telligent creatures.  The  mind  that  deals  only  in  vulgar 
and  common  ideas  is  ready  to  imagine  the  nature  and 
powers  of  man  to  come  something  near  to  God  his  maker, 
because  wc  do  not  see  or  sensibly  converse  with  any 
beings  superior  to  ourselves.  But  when  tlie  soul  has 
obtained  a  greater  amplitude  of  thouglit,  it  will  not  then 
immediately  pronounce  every  thing  to  be  God  which  is 
12* 


138  OP    ENLARGING  THE 

above  man.  It  then  learns  to  suppose  there  may  be  as 
man}'  various  ranks  of  beings  in  the  invisible  world  in  a 
constant  gradation  superior  to  us,  as  we  ourselves  are 
superior  to  all  the  ranks  of  being  beneath  us  in  tliis  visi- 
ble world;  even  though  we  descend  downward  far  be- 
low the  ant  and  the  worm,  the  snail  and  the  oyster,  to 
the  least  and  to  the  dullest  animated  atoms  which  are 
discovered  to  us  by  microscopes. 

By  this  means  we  shall  be  able  to  suppose  what  pro- 
digious power  angels,  whether  good  or  bad,  must  be 
furnished  \vith,  and  prodigious  knowledge,  in  order  to 
oversee  the  realms  of  Persia  and  Graecia  of  old,  or  if  any 
.such  superintended  the  affairs  of  Great  Britain,  France, 
Ireland,  Germany,  &c.  in  our  days:  what  power  and 
speed  is  necessary  to  destroy  one  hundred  and  eiglity- 
five  thousand  armed  men  in  one  night  in  the  Assyrian 
camp  of  Sennacherib,  and  all  the  first-born  of  the  land 
of  Egypt  in  another,  both  which  are  attributed  to  an 
angel. 

By  these  steps  we  shall  ascend  to  form  more  just  ideas 
of  the  knowledge  and  grandeur,  the  power  and  glory  of 
the  man  Jesus  Christ,  who  is  intimately  united  to  God, 
and  is  one  with  him.  Doubtless  he  is  furnislied  with 
superior  powers  to  all  the  angels  in  heaven,  because  he 
is  employed  in  superior  work,  and  appointed  to  be  the 
Sovereign  Lord  of  all  the  visible  and  invisible  worlds. 
Ut  is  his  human  nature  in  which  the  Godhead  dwells 
bodily,  that  is  advanced  to  these  honours,  and  to  this 
empire:  and  perhaps  there  is  little  or  nothing  in  the 
government  of  the  kingdoms  of  nature  and  grace  but 
what  is  transacted  by  the  man  Jesus,  inhabited  by  the 
divine  power  and  wisdom,  and  employed  as  a  medium 
or  conscious  instrument  of  this  extensive  gubernation. 

II.  I  proceed  now  to  consider  the  next  thing  wherein 
the  capacity  or  amplitude  of  the  miud  consists,  and  that 
is,  wlien  the  miud  is  free  to  receive  new  and  strange 
ideas  and  propositions  upon  just  evidence  without  any 
great  surprise  or  aversion.  Those  who  confine  them- 
selves within  the  circle  of  their  own  hereditary  ideas 
and  opinions,  and  who  never  give  themselves  leave  so 
much  as  to  examine  or  believe  any  thing  besides  the  die- 


CAPACITY  OF  THE  MIND.  139 

tates  of  their  own  family,  or  sect,  or  party,  are  justly 
charged  with  a  narrowness  of  soul.  Let  us  survey  some 
instances  of  this  imperfection,  and  then  direct  to  the 
cure  of  it. 

1.  Persons  who  have  been  bred  up  all  their  days  with- 
in the  smoke  of  their  father's  cliimney,  or  within  the 
limits  of  their  native  town  or  village,  are  surprised  at 
every  new  sight  that  appears,  when  they  travel  a  few 
miles  from  home.  The  ploughman  stands  amazed  at 
the  shops,  the  trade,  the  crowds  of  people,  the  magnifi- 
cent buildings,  the  pomp,  and  riches,  and  equipage  of 
the  court  and  city,  and  would  hardly  believe  wliat  was 
told  him  before  lie  saw  it.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
cockney,  travelling  into  the  country,  is  surprised  at  many 
actions  of  the  quadruped  and  winged  animals  in  the 
field,  and  at  many  connnon  practices  of  rural  affairs. 

If  either  of  these  happen  to  hear  an  account  of  the 
familiar  and  daily  customs  of  foreign  countries,  they 
pronounce  them  at  once  indecent  and  ridiculous:  so 
narrow  are  their  understandings,  and  their  thouglits  so 
confined,  that  they  know  not  how  to  believe  any  thing 
wise  and  proper  besides  what  they  have  been  taught  to 
practise. 

This  narrowness  of  mind  should  be  cured  by  hearing 
and  reading  the  accounts  of  different  parts  of  the  world, 
and  the  histories  of  past  ages,  and  of  nations  and  coun- 
tries distant  from  our  own,  especially  the  more  polite 
parts  of  mankind.  Nothing  tends  in  this  respect  so 
much  to  enlarge  the  mind  as  travelling,  i.  e.  making  a 
visit  to  other  towns,  cities,  or  countries,  besides  those 
in  which  we  were  born  and  educated:  and  where  our  con- 
dition of  life  does  not  grant  us  this  privilege,  we  must 
endeavour  to  supply  the  want  of  it  by  books. 

2.  It  is  the  same  narrowness  of  mind  that  awakens 
the  surprise  and  aversion  of  some  persons,  when  they 
hear  of  doctrines  and  schemes  in  human  affairs,  or  in 
religion,  quite  different  from  what  they  have  embraced. 
Perhaps  they  have  been  trained  up  from  their  infancy 
in  one  set  of  notions,  and  their  thoughts  have  been  con- 
fined to  one  single  tract  both  in  the  civil  or  religious 
life,  without  ever  hearing  or  knowing  what  other  opin- 


140  OF  ENLARGING  THE 

ions  are  current  among  mankind:  or  at  least  they  have 
seen  all  other  notions  besides  their  own  represented  in  a 
false  and  malignant  light;  whereupon  they  judge  and 
condemn  at  once  every  sentiment  but  what  tlieir  own 
party  receives;  and  they  think  it  a  piece  of  justice  and 
truth  to  lay  heavy  censures  upon  the  practice  of  every 
sect  in  Christianity  or  politics.  They  have  so  rooted 
themselves  in  the  opinions  of  their  party,  that  tiiey  can- 
not hear  an  objection  with  patience,  nor  can  they  bear 
a  vindication,  or  so  much  as  an  apology,  for  any  set  of 
principles  beside  their  own;  all  the  rest  is  nonsense  or 
heresy,  folly  or  blasphemy. 

This  defect  also  is  to  be  relieved  by  free  conversation 
with  persons  of  different  sentiments:  this  will  teach  us 
to  bear  with  patience  a  defence  of  opinions  contrary 
to  our  own.  If  we  are  scholars,  we  should  also  read 
the  objections  against  our  own  tenets,  and  view  the 
principles  of  other  parties,  as  they  are  represented  in 
their  own  authors,  and  not  merely  in  the  citations  of 
those  who  would  confute  them.  We  should  take  an 
honest  and  unbiassed  survey  of  the  force  of  reasoning 
on  all  sides,  and  bring  all  to  the  test  of  unprejudiced 
reasoning  and  divine  revelation.  Note,  this  is  not  to  be 
done  in  a  rasli  and  self-sufficient  manner;  but  with  an 
humble  dependance  on  divine  wisdom  and  grace,  while 
we  walk  among  snares  and  dangers. 

By  such  a  free  converse  with  persons  of  different  sects 
(especially  those  who  diffisr  only  in  particular  forms  of 
Christianity,  but  agree  in  the  great  and  necessary  doc- 
trines of  it)  we  shall  find  that  there  are  persons  of  good 
sense  and  virtue,  persons  of  piety  and  worth,  persons  of 
much  candour  and  goodness,  who  belong  to  different 
parties,  and  have  imbibed  sentiments  opposite  to  each 
other.  This  will  soften  the  roughness  of  an  unpolished 
soul,  and  enlarge  the  avenues  of  our  charity  towards 
others,  and  incline  us  to  receive  them  into  all  tlie  degrees 
of  unity  and  affection  wliich  the  word  of  God  requires. 

3.  I  might  borrow  furtlier  illustrations  both  of  this 
freedom  and  this  aversion  to  receive  new  truths  from 
modern  astronomy  and  natural  philosophy.  How  much 
is  the  vulgar  part  of  the  world  surprised  at  the  talk  of 


CAPACITY  OF  THE  MIND.  141 

the  diurnal  and  annual  revolutions  of  the  earth!  They 
have  ever  been  taught  by  their  senses,  and  tlieir  neigh- 
bours, to  imagine  the  eartli  stands  fixed  in  tiie  centre  of 
tlie  universe,  and  that  the  sun,  with  all  the  planets  and 
fixed  stars,  are  whirled  round  this  little  globe  once  in 
twenty-four  hours:  not  considering  that  such  a  diurnal 
motion,  by  reason  of  tlie  distance  of  some  of  tiiose  Iieav- 
enly  bodies,  must  be  almost  infinitely  swifter,  and  more 
inconceivable,  than  any  which  tlie  modern  astronomers 
attribute  to  them.  Tell  these  persons  that  the  sun  is 
fixed  in  the  centre,  that  the  earth,  with  all  the  i)la»iets, 
roll  round  the  sun  in  their  several  periods,  and  tliat  the 
moon  rolls  round  the  earth  in  a  lesser  circle,  while,  to- 
gether with  the  earth,  she  is  carried  round  the  sun;  they 
cannot  admit  a  syllable  of  this  new  and  strange  doc- 
trine, and  they  prououce  it  utterly  contrary  to  all  sense 
and  reason. 

Ac(|uaint  tliem  that  there  are  four  moons  also  perj)ctu- 
ally  ndling  round  the  planet  Jupiter,  and  carried  along 
with  iiiui  in  his  periodical  circuit  round  the  sun,  which 
little  moons  were  never  known  till  tlie  year  1610,  when 
Galileo  discovered  them  by  his  telescope:  inform  them 
that  Saturn  has  five  moons  of  the  same  kind  attending 
him;  and  that  the  body  of  that  planet  is  encompassed 
with  a  broad  ilat  circular  ring,  distant  from  the  planet 
twenty-one  thousand  miles,  and  twenty-one  thousand 
miles  broad;  they  look  upon  these  things  as  talcs  and 
fancies,  and  will  tell  you  that  the  glasses  do  but  dcdude 
your  eyes  with  vast  images;  and  even  when  they  them- 
selves consult  their  own  eyesight  in  the  use  of  these 
tubes,  the  narrowness  of  their  mind  is  such,  that  they 
will  scarcely  believe  their  senses  when  they  dictate  ideas 
BO  new  and  strange. 

And  if  you  proceed  further,  and  attempt  to  load  them 
into  a  belief  that  all  these  |)lanetary  worlds  are  habitable, 
and  it  is  probable  they  are  replenished  with  intel- 
lectual beings  dwelling  in  bodies,  they  v;ill  deride  the 
folly  of  him  that  informs  them;  for  they  resolve  to  be- 
lieve there  are  no  habitable  worlds  but  this  earth,  and 
no  spirits  dwelling  in  bodies  besides  mankind;  and  it  is 
well  if  they  do  not  fix  the  brand  of  hertisy  on  the  rnan 


142  OF   ENLARGING  THE 

who  is  leading  them  out  of  their  long  imprisonment, 
and  loosing  the  fetters  of  their  souls. 

There  are  many  otlier  things  relating  to  mechanical 
experiments,  and  to  the  properties  of  the  air,  water, 
file,  iron,  the  loadstone,  and  other  minerals  and  metals, 
as  well  as  the  doctrine  of  the  sensible  qualities,  viz.  col- 
ours, sounds,  tastes,  &c.  which  this  rank  of  men  cannot 
believe  for  want  of  a  greater  amplitude  of  mind. 

Tlie  best  way  to  convince  them  is  by  giving  them 
some  acquaintance  with  the  various  experiments  in 
philosophy,  and  proving  by  ocular  demonstration  the 
multiform  and  amazing  operations  of  the  air-pump,  the 
loadstone,  tiie  chymical  furnace,  optical  glasses,  and 
mechanical  engines.  By  this  means  tlie  understanding 
will  stretcli  itself  by  degrees,  and  when  they  have  found 
there  are  so  many  new  and  strange  tilings  that  are  most 
evidently  true,  they  will  not  be  so  forward  to  condemn 
every  new  proposition  in  any  of  the  other  sciences,  or 
in  the  affairs  of  religion  or  civil  life. 

III.  The  capacity  of  the  understanding  includes  yet 
anotlier  qualification  in  it,  and  that  is,  an  ability  to  re- 
ceive many  ideas  at  once  uitiiout  confusion.  The  am- 
ple mind  takes  a  survey  of  several  objects  with  one 
glance,  keeps  them  all  within  sight  and  present  to  the 
soul,  that  tliey  may  be  compared  together  in  their  mu- 
tual respects;  it  forms  just  judgments,  and  it  draws  prop- 
er inferences  from  this  comparison,  even  to  a  great 
length  of  argument,  and  a  chain  of  demonstrations. 

The  narrowness  that  belongs  to  human  souls  in  gen- 
eral is  a  great  imperfection  and  impediment  to  wisdom 
and  happiness.  There  are  but  few  persons  who  can 
contemplate  or  practise  several  tilings  at  once;  our  fac- 
ulties are  very  limited,  and  while  we  are  intent  upon' 
one  part  or  property  of  a  subject,  we  have  but  a  slight 
glimpse  of  the  rest,  or  we  lose  it  out  of  sight.  But  it 
is  a  sign  of  a  large  and  capacious  mind,  if  we  can  with 
one  single  view  take  in  a  variety  of  ol)jects;  or  at  least 
when  the  mind  can  apply  itself  to  several  objects  with 
so  swift  a  succession,  and  in  so  few  moments,  as  attains 
almost  the  same  ends  as  if  it  were  all  done  in  tlie  same 
instant. 


CAPACITY  OF  THE  MIND.  143 

This  is  a  necessary  qualification  in  order  to  great 
knowledge  and  good  judgment;  for  tliere  are  several 
things  in  human  liie,  in  religion,  and  in  the  sciences, 
which  have  various  circumstances,  appendices,  and  re- 
lations attending  them;  and  without  a  survey  of  all  those 
ideas  which  stand  in  connexion  with  and  relation  to  each 
other,  we  are  often  in  danger  of  passing  a  false  judg- 
ment on  the  subject  proposed.  It  is  for  this  reason  there 
are  so  numerous  controversies  found  among  the  learned 
and  unlearned  world,  in  matters  of  religion,  as  well  as 
in  the  atiairs  of  civil  government.  The  notions  of  sin, 
and  duty  to  God  and  our  fellow  creatures;  of  law,  jus- 
tice, authority,  and  power;  of  covenant,  faith,  justifica- 
tion, redemption,  and  grace;  of  church,  bishop,  presby- 
ter, ordination,  &c.  contain  in  them  such  complicated 
ideas,  that  when  we  are  to  judge  of  any  thing  concern- 
ing them,  it  is  hard  to  take  into  our  view  at  once  all  the 
attendants  or  consequents  that  must  and  will  be  con- 
cerned in  the  determination  of  a  single  question:  and 
yet,  without  a  due  attention  to  many  or  most  of  these, 
we  are  in  danger  of  determining  that  question  amiss. 

It  is  owing  to  the  narrowness  of  our  minds  that  we 
are  exposed  to  the  same  peril  in  the  matters  of  human 
duty  and  prudence.  In  many  things  which  we  do,  we 
ouglit  not  only  to  consider  the  mere  naked  action  itself, 
but  the  persons  who  act,  the  persons  towards  whom,  the 
time  when,  the  place  where,  the  manner  how,  the  end 
for  which  the  action  is  done,  together  with  the  effects 
that  must  or  that  n)ay  follow,  and  all  other  surrounding 
circumstances:  these  things  must  necessarily  be  taken 
into  our  view,  in  order  to  determine  whether  the  action, 
which  is  indifferent  in  itself,  be  either  lawful  or  unlaw- 
ful, good  or  evil,  wise  or  foolish,  decent  or  indecent, 
proper  or  improper,  as  it  is  so  circumstantiated. 

Let  me  give  a  plain  instance  for  the  illustration  of 
this  matter.  Mario  kills  a  dog,  which,  considered  mere- 
ly in  itself  seems  to  be  an  indifferent  action:  now  the 
dog  was  Timon's,  and  not  his  own;  this  makes  it  look 
unlawful.  But  Timon  bid  him  do  it;  this  gives  it  an 
appearance  of  lawfulness  again.  It  was  done  at  church, 
and  in  time  of  divine  service;  these  circumstances  ad- 


144  OF  ENLARGING  THE 

ded,  cast  on  it  an  air  of  irreligion.  But  the  dog  flew  at 
Mario,  and  pat  him  in  danger  of  his  hfe;  this  reheves 
the  seeming  impiety  of  the  action.  Yet  Mario  might 
have  escaped  by  flying  thence;  therefore  the  action  ap- 
pears to  be  improper.  But  the  dog  was  known  to  be 
mad;  tliis  further  circumstance  makes  it  almost  necessa- 
ry that  the  dog  should  be  slain,  lest  he  might  v/orry  the 
assembly,  and  do  much  mischief  Ye'„  again,  Mario  kil- 
led him  with  a  pistol,  which  he  happened  to  have  in  his 
pocket  since  yesterday's  journey;  now  hereby  tlie  whole 
congregation  was  terrified  and  discomposed,  and  divine 
service  was  broken  off:  this  carries  an  appearance  of 
great  indecency  and  impropriety  in  it:  but  after  all, 
when  we  consider  a  further  circumstance,  that  Mario, 
being  thus  violently  assaulted  by  a  mad  dog,  had  no  way 
of  escape,  and  had  no  other  weapon  about  him,  it  seems 
to  take  away  all  the  colours  of  impropriety,  indecency, 
or  unlawfulness,  and  to  allow  that  the  preservation  of 
one  or  many  lives  will  justify  the  act  as  wise  and  good. 
Now  all  these  concurrent  appendices  of  the  action  ought 
to  be  surveyed,  in  order  to  pronounce  with  justice  and 
truth  concerning  it. 

There  are  a  multitude  of  human  actions  in  private 
life,  in  domestic  affairs,  in  traffic,  in  civil  governments, 
in  courts  of  justice,  in  schools  of  learning,  &c.  which 
have  so  many  complicated  circumstances,  aspects,  and 
situations,  with  regard  to  time  and  place,  persons  and 
things,  that  it  is  impossible  for  any  one  to  pass  a  right 
judgment  concerning  them,  without  entering  into  most 
of  these  circumstances,  and  surveying  them  extensive- 
ly, and  comparing  and  balancing  them  all  ariglit. 

Whence  by  tlie  way  I  may  take  occasion  to  say,  how 
many  thousands  are  there  who  take  upon  them  to  pass 
their  censures  on  the  personal  and  the  domestic  actions 
of  others,  who  pronounce  boldly  on  the  affairs  of  the 
public,  and  determine  the  justice  or  madness,  the  wis- 
dom or  folly  of  national  administrations,  of  peace  and 
war,  &c.  whom  neither  God  nor  men  ever  qualified  for 
such  a  post  of  judgment!  They  were  not  capable  of  en- 
tering into  the  numerous  concurring  springs  of  action, 
uor  had  they  ever  taken  a  survey  of  the  twentieth  part 


CAPACITY  OF  THE  MIND.  145 

of  the  circumstances  which  were  necessary  for  such 
judgments  or  censures. 

It  is  the  narrowness  of  our  minds,  as  well  as  the  vi- 
ces of  the  will,  that  oftentimes  prevents  us  from  taking 
a  full  view  of  all  the  complicated  and  concurring  ap- 
pendices that  belong  to  human  actions;  thence  it  cumes 
to  pass  that  there  is  so  little  right  judgment,  so  little 
justice,  prudence,  or  decency,  practised  among  the  bulk 
of  mankind;  thence  arise  infinite  reproaches  and  cen- 
sures; alike  foolish  and  unrighteous.  You  see,  there- 
fore, how  needful  and  happy  a  thing  it  is  to  be  posses- 
sed of  some  measure  of  this  amplitude  of  soul,  in  order 
to  make  us  very  wise,  or  knowing,  or  just,  or  prudent, 
or  happy. 

I  confess  this  sort  of  amphtude  or  capacity  of  mind 
is  in  a  great  measure  the  gift  of  nature,  for  some  are 
born  with  much  more  capacious  souls  than  others. 

The  genius  of  some  persons  is  so  poor  and  limited, 
that  they  can  hardly  take  in  the  connexion  of  two  or 
three  propositions,  unless  it  be  in  matters  of  sense,  and 
which  they  have  learned  by  experience:  they  are  utterly 
unfit  for  s})eculative  studies;  it  is  hard  for  tliem  to  dis- 
cern the  ditference  betwixt  right  and  wrong  in  matters 
of  reason  on  any  abstracted  subjects;  these  ought  never 
to  set  up  for  scholars,  but  apply  themselves  to  those  arts 
and  professions  of  life  which  are  to  be  learned  at  an 
easier  rate,  by  slow  degrees  and  daily  experience. 

Others  have  a  soul  a  little  more  capacious,  and  they 
can  take  in  the  connexion  of  a  few  propositix)ns  pretty 
well;  but  if  the  chain  of  consequences  be  a  little  prolix, 
here  they  stick  and  are  confounded.  If  persons  of  this 
make  ever  devote  tliemselves  to  science,  tliey  should  be 
well  assured  of  a  solid  and  strong  constitution  of  body, 
and  well  resolved  to  bear  the  fatigue  of  hard  labour  and 
diligence  in  study:  if  the  iron  be  bent,  King  Solomon 
tells  us,  we  must  put  more  strength. 

But,  in  the  third  place,  tliere  are  some  of  so  bright 
and  happy  a  genius,  and  so  ample  a  mind,  that  they  can 
take  in  a  long  train  of  propositions,  if  not  at  once,  yet 
in  a  very  few  moments,  and  judge  well  concerning  the 
dependance  of  them.  They  can  survey  a  variety  of 
13 


146  OF  El^LARGING  THE 

complicated  ideas  without  fatigue  or  disturbance;  and 
a  number  of  truths  offering  themselves  as  it  were  atone 
view  to  their  understanding,  doth  not  perplex  or  con- 
found them.     Tins  makes  a  great  man. 

Now,  though  there  may  be  much  owing  to  nature  in 
this  case,  yet  experience  assures  us,  that  even  a  lower 
degree  of  this  capacity  and  extent  of  thought  may  be 
increased  by  diligence  and  application,  by  frequent  ex- 
ercise, and  the  observation  of  such  rules  as  these: 

I.  Labour  by  all  means  to  gaiti  an  attentive  and  pa- 
tient temper  of  mind,  a  power  of  confining  and  fixing 
your  thoaghts  so  long  on  any  one  appointed  subject,  till 
you  have  surveyed  it  on  every  side  and  in  every  situa- 
tion, and  run  through  the  several  powers,  parts,  proper- 
ties and  relations,  et!ects  and  consequences  of  it.  He 
whose  thoughts  are  very  fluttering  and  wandering,  and 
cannot  be  fixed  attentively  to  a  few  ideas  successively, 
will  never  be  able  to  survey  many  and  various  objects 
distinctly  at  once,  but  will  certainly  be  overwhelmed 
and  confounded  with  the  multiplicity  of  them.  The 
rules  for  fixing  the  attention  in  the  former  chapter  are 
proper  to  be  consulted  here. 

II.  Accustom  yourself  to  clear  and  distinct  ideas  in 
every  thing  you  think  of.  Be  not  satisfied  with  obscure 
and  confused  conceptions  of  things,  especially  where 
clearer  may  be  obtained;  for  one  obscure  or  confused 
idea,  especially  if  it  be  of  great  importance  in  the  ques- 
tion, intermingled  with  many  clear  ones,  and  placed  in 
its  variety  of  aspects  towards  them,  will  be  in  danger 
of  spreading  confusion  over  the  whole  scene  of  ideas, 
and  thus  may  have  an  unhappy  influence  to  overwhelm 
the  understanding  with  darkness  and  pervert  the  judg- 
ment. A  little  black  paint  will  shamefully  tincture  and 
spoil  twenty  gay  colours. 

Consider  yet  further,  that  if  you  content  yourself 
frequently  with  words  instead  of  ideas,  or  witli  cloudy 
and  confused  notions  of  things,  how  impenetrable  will 
that  darkness  be,  and  how  vast  and  endless  tliat  confu- 
sion which  must  surround  and  involve  the  understand- 
ing, when  many  of  these  obscure  and  confused  ideas 
come  to  be  set  before  the  soul  at  once;  and  how  iinpos- 


; 


CAPACITY     OF  THE  MIND. 


m 


sible  will  it  be  to  form  a  clear  and  just  judgment  about 
them. 

III.  Use  all  diligence  to  acquire  and  treasure  up  a 
large  store  of  ideas  and  notions:  take  every  opportunity 
to  add  something  to  your  stock;  and  by  frequent  recol- 
lection fix  them  in  your  memory;  nothing  tends  to  con- 
firm and  enlarge  the  memory  like  a  frequent  review  of 
its  possessions.  Then  the  brain  being  well  furnished 
with  various  traces,  signatures,  and  images,  will  have  a 
rich  treasure  always  ready  to  be  proposed  or  offered  to 
the  soul,  when  it  directs  its  thought  towards  any  par- 
ticular subject.  This  will  gradually  give  the  mind  a 
faculty  of  surveying  many  objects  at  once,  as  a  room 
that  is  richly  adorned  and  hung  round  with  a  great  va- 
riety of  pictures  strikes  the  eye  almost  at  once  with  all 
that  variety,  especially  if  they  have  been  well  surveyed 
one  by  one  at  first:  tliis  makes  it  habitual  and  more  ea- 
sy to  the  inhabitants  to  take  in  many  of  those  painted 
scenes  with  a  single  glance  or  two. 

Here  note,  that  by  acquiring  a  rich  treasure  of  notions, 
I  do  not  mean  only  single  ideas,  but  also  propositions, 
observations,  and  experiences,  with  reasonings  and  argu- 
ments upon  the  various  subjects  that  occur  among 
natural  and  moral,  common  or  sacred  affairs;  that  when 
you  are  called  to  j«dge  concerning  any  question,  you 
will  have  some  principles  of  truth,  some  useful  axioms 
and  observations,  always  ready  at  hand  to  direct  and  as- 
sist your  judgment. 

IV.  It  is  necessary  that  we  should  as  far  as  possible 
entertain  and  lay  up  our  daily  new  ideas  in  a  regular  order, 
and  range  the  acquisitions  of  oursouls  under  proper  heads, 
whetlier  of  divinity,  law,  physics,  mathematics,  morality, 
politics,  trade,  domestic  life,  civility,  decency,  &c. 
whetlier  of  cause,  effect,  substance,  mode,  power,  pro- 
perty, body,  spirit,  &c.  We  should  inure  our  minds  to 
method  and  order  continually;  and  when  we  take  in  any 
fresh  ideas,  occurrences,  and  observations,  we  should 
dispose  of  them  in  their  proper  places,  and  see  how  they 
stand  and  agree  with  the  rest  of  our  notions  on  the  same 
subjects:  as  a  scholar  would  dispose  of  a  new  book  on  a 
proper  shelf  among  its  kindred  authors;  or  as  an  officer 


148  OF  ENLARGING  THE 

at  tlie  post-house  in  London  disposes  of  every  letter  he 
talies  in,  placing  it  in  the  box  that  belongs  to  the  proper 
road  or  county. 

In  any  of  these  cases,  if  things  lay  all  in  a  heap,  the 
addition  of  any  new  object  would  increase  the  confusion, 
but  method  gives  a  speedy  and  short  survey  of  them 
with  ease  and  pleasure.  Method  is  of  admirable  ad- 
vantage to  keep  our  ideas  from  a  confused  mixture,  and 
to  preserve  them  ready  for  every  use.  The  science  of 
ontology,  which  distributes  all  beings,  and  all  the  affec- 
tions of  being,  whether  absolute  or  relative,  under  proper 
classes,  is  of  good  service  to  keep  our  intellectual  acqui- 
sitions in  such  order  as  that  the  mind  may  survey  them 
at  once. 

V.  As  method  is  necessary  for  the  improvement  of  the 
mind,  in  order  to  make  your  treasure  of  ideas  most  use- 
ful, so  in  all  your  further  pursuits  of  truth  and  acquire- 
ments of  rational  knowledge,  observe  a  regular  progres- 
sive metljod.  Begin  with  the  most  simple,  easy,  and 
obvious  ideas;  then  b)'^  degrees  join  two,  and  three,  and 
more  of  them  together:  thus  the  complicated  ideas,  grow- 
ing up  under  your  eye  and  observation,  will  not  give  the 
same  confusion  of  thought  as  they  would  do  if  they  were 
all  offered  to  the  mind  at  once,  without  your  observing 
the  original  and  formation  of  them.  An  eminent  ex- 
ample of  this  appears  in  the  study  of  arithmetic.  If  a 
scholar,  just  admitted  into  the  school,  observes  his  master 
performing  an  operation  in  the  rule  of  division,  his 
head  is  at  once  disturbed  and  confounded  with  tlie  mani- 
fold comparisons  of  the  numbers  of  the  divisor  and  di- 
vidend, and  the  multiplication  of  the  one  and  subtrac- 
tion of  it  from  the  other;  but  if  he  begin  regularly  at 
addition,  and  so  proceed  by  subtraction  and  multiplica- 
tion, he  will  then  in  a  few  weeks  be  able  to  take  in  an 
intelligent  survey  of  all  those  operations  in  division,  and 
to  practise  them  himself  with  ease  and  pleasure,  each 
of  which  at  first  seemed  all  intricacy  and  confusion. 

An  illustration  of  the  like  nature  may  be  borrowed 
from  geometry  and  algebra,  and  other  mathematical 
practices:  how  easily  does  an  expert  geometrician  with 
one  glance  of  his  eye  take  in  a  complicated  diagram, 


CAPACITY  OF  THE  MIND.  149 

made  up  of  many  lines  and  circles,  angles,  and  arches! 
How  readily  does  he  judge  of  it,  whether  the  demon- 
stration designed  by  it  be  true  or  false!  It  was  by  de- 
grees he  arrived  at  this  stretch  of  understanding;  he 
began  with  a  single  line  or  a  point;  he  joined  two  lines 
in  an  angle;  he  advanced  to  triangles  and  squares,  poly- 
gons and  circles;  thus  the  powers  of  his  understanding 
were  stretched  and  augmented  daily,  till,  by  diligence 
and  application,  he  acquired  this  extensive  faculty  of 
mind. 

But  this  advantage  does  not  belong  only  to  mathe- 
matical learning.  If  we  apply  ourselves  at  first  in  any 
science  to  clear  and  single  ideas,  and  never  hurry  our- 
selves on  to  the  following  and  more  complicated  parts 
of  knowledge,  till  we  thoroughly  understand  the  fore- 
going, we  may  practice  the  same  method  of  enlarging 
tlie  capacity  of  the  soul  with  success  in  any  one  of  the 
sciences,  or  in  tlie  affairs  of  life  and  religion. 

Beginning  witli  A,  B,  C,  and  making  syllables  out  of 
letters,  and  words  out  of  syllables,  has  been  the  founda- 
tion of  all  that  glorious  superstructure  of  arts  and  sci- 
ences which  have  enriched  the  minds  and  libraries  of 
the  learned  world  in  several  ages.  These  are  the  first 
steps  by  which  the  ample  and  capacious  souls  among 
mankind  have  arrived  at  that  prodigious  extent  of  know- 
ledge, which  renders  them  the  wonder  and  glory  of  the 
nation  where  they  live.  Though  Plato  and  Cicero, 
Descartes  and  Mr.  Boyle,  Mr.  Locke  and  Sir  Isaac  New- 
ton, were  doubtless  favoured  by  nature  with  a  genius  of 
uncotnmon  amplitude;  yet,  in  their  early  years,  and  first 
attempts  of  science,  this  was  but  limited  and  narrow,  in 
comparison  of  what  they  attained  at  last.  But  how  vast 
and  capacious  were  those  powers  which  they  afterwards 
acquired  by  patient  attention  and  watchful  observation, 
by  the  pursuit  of  clear  ideas,  and  a  regular  method  of 
thinking! 

VI.  Another  means  of  acquiring  this  amplitude  and 
capacity  of  mind,  is  a  perusal  of  difficult  entangled 
questions,  and  of  the  solution  of  them  in  any  science. 
Speculative  and  casuistical  divinity  will  furnish  us  with 
many  such  cases  and  controversies.  There  are  some 
13* 


150  OF  iMrnoviNG  tuk  mfmory. 

such  i\\(Tu'.\i\\\vn  iti  io(()iiciliii(rsov(M-;il  i)arts(>rtlio  I'^pistles 
of  St.  l*;nil,  nfliiliiiii-  to  tlic  Jtnvisli  law  and  tlio  Christian 
gosjuil;  a  li;i|)|)y  siihitiiiii  whciecir  will  n^quiio  such  an 
c.\tt!iisivo  view  oCthiiijis,  and  the  roadiiiir  of  thest;  happy 
solutitms  will  (Milnijiro  this  faculty  in  youuo'tM-  studiMits- 
lu  moral  and  |)(dilical  subjects,  rullcMdorir's  Law  of 
Natures  and  Nations,  and  several  (hUenninations  therein.. 
will  promote  tlie  same  am|)litude  of  mind.  An  atten- 
dance on  public  trials,  and  ariruments  in  the  civil  courts 
of  justice,  will  In;  of  j^ood  advanta^ii!  for  this  purpose.^ 
and  after  a  man  has  studied  the  fjcni^ral  ])rinciples  of 
the  law  of  nature,  and  the  laws  of  Knijland,  in  proper 
books,  the  reading  the  reports  of  adjudired  cases,  col- 
le(  ted  by  men  of  f^reat  sa<facity  and  judjjfnu'nt,  will 
ri(!hly  im|)rove  his  mind  toward  acquirinir  this  desirable 
anjplitude  and  extent  of  thouirht,  and  more  es})Ocially 
in  persons  of  that  profession. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


OF  IMI'KOVINO  THE   MKMORY. 


Mf-MOUy  is  a  distinct  faculty  of  the  mind  of  man,  very 
dilVcrent  from  perception,  judi^nient,  and  rcasonini'',  and 
its  other  powers.  'I'hen  we  are  said  to  lemcmber  any 
thinir,  when  the  idea  of  it  arises  in  the  mind  with  a  con- 
sciousness at  the  same  titne  that  we  have  had  this  idea 
before.  Our  memory  is  our  natural  power  of  retaining 
what  we  learn,  and  of  recalliiifif  it  on  every  occasion. 
Therefore  we  can  never  be  said  to  remend)iM-  any  thing, 
wlu^ther  it  be  iilcas  or  propositions,  words  or  things, 
notions  or  arjjuments,  of  vvliich  we  have  not  had  s(»ine 
former  idea  or  i)erception,  either  by  sense  or  imagina- 
tion, thought  or  reflection;  but  whatsoever  we  learn  from 
ol)servati(in,  books,  or  conversati(»n,  &c.  it  nuist  all  be 
laid  up  and  preserved  in  the  memory,  if  we  would  make 
it  really  useful. 

So  necessary  and  so  excellent  a  fvculty  is  the  memory 
of  nuin,  that  all  other  abilities  of  the  mind  borrow  from 


OF    IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY.  161 

hence  tlieir  beauty  and  poifection;  for  the  other  capacities 
of  the  soul  are  ahnost  useless  without  this.  To  what 
purpose  are  all  our  labours  in  knowledfre  and  wisdom, 
if  we  want  memory  to  preserve  and  use  what  we  have 
acquired?  What  signify  all  other  intellectual  and  spirit- 
ual improvements,  if  tiiey  are  lost  as  soon  as  they  are 
obtained?  It  is  memory  alone  that  enriches  the  mind, 
by  preservings  what  our  labour  and  industry  daily  col- 
lect. In  a  word,  there  can  be  neither  knowledge,  nor 
arts,  nor  sciences,  without  memory,  nor  can  there  be 
any  improvement  of  mankind  in  virtue  or  morals,  or 
the  practice  of  religion,  without  tlic  assistance  and  influ- 
ence of  this  power.  Witliout  memory  tlie  soul  of  man 
would  be  but  a  poor,  destitute,  naked  being,  with  an 
everlasting  blank  spread  over  it,  except  the  fleeting 
ideas  of  tiie  present  moment. 

Memory  is  very  useful  to  those  who  speak  as  well  as  to 
those  who  learn;  it  assists  tiie  teacher  and  the  orator, 
as  well  as  the  scholar  or  the  hearer.  The  best  speeches 
and  instructions  are  ahnost  lost,  if  tho.se  who  hear  them 
innnediately  forget  them.  And  those  wlio  are  called  to 
speak  in  public  are  much  belter  heard  and  accejited, 
when  tiiey  can  deliver  their  discourse  l)y  the  help  of  a 
lively  genius  and  a  ready  memory,  than  when  they  arc 
forced  to  read  all  that  they  would  connnunicate  to  their 
hearers.  Reading  is  certainly  a  heavier  way  of  the  con- 
veyance of  our  sentiments;  and  there  are  very  ihw  mere 
readers  who  have  the  felicity  of  penetrating  tlie  soul 
and  awakening  the  passions  of  tliose  who  hear,  by  such 
a  grace  and  {)ower  of  or.itory,  as  the  man  who  seems  to 
talk  every  word  from  his  very  heart,  and  pours  out  the 
riches  of  his  own  knowledge  upon  tlie  peo))le  round 
al)out  him  by  the  help  of  a  free  and  coi)ious  memory. 
This  gives  life  and  spirit  to  every  thing  that  is  spoken, 
and  has  a  natural  tendency  to  make  a  deeper  impression 
on  the  minds  of  men:  it  awakens  the  dullest  spirits, 
causes  them  to  receive  a  discourse  with  more  atlection 
and  pleasure,  and  adds  a  singular  grace  and  excellency 
both  to  tlie  person  and  his  oration. 

A  good  judgment  and  a  good  memory  are  very  differ- 
ent qualilications.     A  person  may  have  a  very  strong, 


163  OF  IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY. 

capacious,  and  retentive  memory,  where  the  judgment 
is  very  poor  and  weak:  as  sometimes  it  happens  in  those 
who  are  but  one  degree  above  an  idiot,  who  have  mani- 
fested an  amazing  strength  and  extent  of  memory,  but 
have  hardly  been  able  to  join  or  disjoin  two  or  three 
ideas  in  a  wise  and  happy  manner  to  make  a  solid 
rational  proposition. 

There  have  been  instances  of  others  who  have  had 
but  a  very  tolerable  power  of  memory,  yet  their  judg- 
ment has  been  of  a  much  superior  degree,  just  and  wise, 
solid  and  excellent. 

Yet  it  must  be  acknowledged,  that  where  a  happy 
memory  is  found  in  any  person,  there  is  one  good  foun- 
dation laid  for  a  wise  and  just  judgment  of  things,  where- 
soever the  natural  genius  has  any  thing  of  sagacity  and 
briglitness  to  make  a  right  use  of  it.  A  good  judgment 
must  always  in  some  measure  depend  upon  a  survey 
and  comparison  of  several  tilings  togetlier  in  the  mind, 
and  determining  the  truth  of  some  doubtful  proposition 
by  that  survey  and  comparison.  When  the  mind  has, 
as  it  were,  set  all  those  various  objects  present  before  it, 
which  are  necessary  to  form  a  true  proposition  or  judg- 
ment concerning  any  tiling,  it  then  determines  that  such 
and  such  ideas  are  to  be  joined  or  disjoined,  to  be  af- 
firmed or  denied;  and  this  is  a  consistency  and  correspon- 
dence with  all  those  other  ideas  and  propositions  wiiich 
any  way  relate  or  belong  to  the  same  subject.  Now 
there  can  be  no  such  comprehensive  survey  of  many 
things  without  a  tolerable  degree  of  memory;  it  is  by  re- 
viewing things  past  we  learn  to  judge  of  the  future: 
and  it  happens  sometimes  that  if  one  needful  or  impor- 
tant object  or  idea  be  absent,  tlie  judgment  concerning 
the  thing  inquired  will  thereby  become  false  or  mistaken. 

You  will  inquire  then,  How  comes  it  to  pass  tliat 
there  are  some  persons  wlio  appear  in  the  world  of 
business,  as  well  as  in  the  world  of  learning,  to  have  a 
good  judgment,  and  have  acquired  the  just  character  of 
prudence  and  wisdom,  and  yet  have  neither  a  very 
bright  genius  or  sagacity  of  thought,  nor  a  very  happy 
memory,  so  that  they  cannot  set  before  tlieir  minds  at 
once  a  large  scene  of  ideas  in  order  to  pass  a  judgment.'' 


OF  IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY.  153 

Now  we  may  learn  from  Penseroso  some  accounts  of 
this  difficulty.  You  sliall  scarcely  ever  find  this  man  . 
forward  in  judging  and  determining  things  proposed  to 
him;  but  he  always  takes  time,  and  delays,  and  sus- 
pends, and  ponders  things  maturely,  before  he  passes  his 
judgment:  tiien  he  practises  a  slow  meditation,  rumi- 
nates on  the  subject,  and  thus  perhaps  in  two  or  three 
nights  and  days  rouses  and  awakens  those  several  ideas, 
one  after  another,  as  he  can,  which  are  necessary  in  or- 
der to  judge  aright  of  the  thing  proposed,  and  makes 
them  pass  before  his  review  in  succession:  this  he  doth 
to  relieve  the  want  both  of  a  quick  sagacity  of  thought 
and  of  a  ready  memory  and  speedy  recollection;  and 
this  caution  and  practice  lays  the  foundation  of  his  just 
judgment  and  wise  conduct.  He  surveys  well  before  he 
judges. 

Whence  I  cannot  but  take  occasion  to  infer  one  good 
rule  of  advice  to  persons  of  higher  as  well  as  lower 
genius,  and  of  large  as  well  as  narrow  memories,  viz. 
That  they  do  not  too  hastily  pronounce  concerning  mat- 
ters of  doubt  or  inquiry,  where  there  is  not  an  urgent 
necessity  of  present  action.  The  bright  genius  is  ready 
to  be  so  forward  as  often  betrays  itself  into  great  errors 
in  judgment,  speech,  and  conduct,  without  a  continual 
guard  upon  itself,  and  using  the  bridle  of  the  tongue. 
And  it  is  by  this  delay  and  precaution  that  many  a  person 
of  much  lower  natural  abilities  shall  often  excel  persons 
of  the  brightest  genius  in  wisdom  and  prudence. 

It  is  often  found  that  a  fine  genius  has  but  a  feeble 
memory:  for  where  the  genius  is  bright,  and  the  imagi- 
nation vivid,  the  power  of  memory  may  be  too  much 
neglected  and  lose  its  improvement.  An  active  fancy 
readily  wanders  over  a  multitude  of  objects,  and  is  con- 
tinually entertaining  itself  with  new  flying  images;  it 
runs  through  a  number  of  new  scenes  or  new  pages  with 
pleasure,  but  without  due  attention,  and  seldom  suffers 
itself  to  dwell  long  enough  upon  any  one  of  them,  to 
make  a  deep  impression  thereof  upon  the  mind,  and 
commit  it  to  lasting  remembrance.  This  is  one  plain 
and  obvious  reason  why  there  are  some  persons  of  very 
bright  parts  and  active  spirits,  who  have  but  short  and 


154  OF  IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY. 

narrow  powers  of  remembrance:  for  having  riches  of 
their  own,  they  are  not  sohcitous  to  borrow. 

And  as  such  a  quick  and  various  fancy  and  invention 
may  be  some  hinderance  to  the  attention  and  memory, 
so  a  mind  of  a  good  retentive  abihty,  and  which  is  ever 
crowding  its  memory  with  things  which  it  learns  and 
reads  continually,  may  prevent,  restrain,  and  cramp  the 
invention  itself.  The  memory  of  Lectorides  is  ever 
ready,  upon  all  occasions,  to  oifer  to  his  mind  something 
out  of  other  men's  writings  or  conversations,  and  is  pre- 
senting him  with  the  thoughts  of  other  persons  perpetu- 
ally: thus  the  man  who  had  naturally  a  good  flowing 
invention,  does  not  suffer  himself  to  pursue  his  own 
thoughts.  Some  persons  who 'have  been  blessed  by  na- 
ture with  sagacity  and  no  contemptible  genius,  have 
too  often  forbid  the  exercise  of  it,  by  ty'mg  themselves 
down  to  the  memory  of  the  volumes  they  have  read, 
and  the  sentiments  of  other  men  contained  in  them. 

Where  the  memory  has  been  almost  constantly  em- 
ploying itself  in  scraping  together  new  acquirements, 
and  wliere  there  has  not  been  a  judgment  sufficient  to 
distinguish  what  things  were  fit  to  be  recommended  and 
treasured  up  in  the  memory,  and  what  things  were  idle, 
useless,  or  needless,  the  mind  has  been  filled  with  a 
wretched  heap  of  hodgepotch  of  words  or  ideas;  and  the 
soul  may  be  said  to  have  had  large  possessions,  but  no 
true  riches. 

I  have  read  in  some  of  Mr.  Milton's  writings  a  very 
beautiful  simile,  whereby  he  represents  the  books  of  the 
Fathers,  as  they  are  called  in  the  Christian  Church. 
Whatsoever,  saith  he.  Old  Time  with  his  huge  drag-net 
has  conveyed  down  to  us  along  the  stream  of  ages, 
whether  it  be  shells  or  shell-fish,  jewels  or  pebbles,  sticks 
or  straws,  sea-weeds  or  mud,  these  are  the  ancients,  these 
are  the  fathers.  The  case  is  much  the  same  with  the 
memorial  possessions  of  tlie  greatest  part  of  mankind. 
A  few  useful  things,  perhaps,  mixed  and  confounded 
with  many  trifles,  and  all  manner  of  rubbish,  fill  up 
their  memories  and  compose  their  intellectual  posses- 
sions. It  is  a  great  happiness  therefore  to  distinguish 
things  aright,  and  to  lay  up  nothing  in  the  memory  but 


OF  IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY.  155 

what  has  some  just  value  in  it,  and  is  worthy  to  be  num- 
bered as  a  part  of  our  treasure. 

Whatosever  improvements  arise  to  the  mind  of  man 
from  the  wise  exercise  of  liis  own  reasoning  powers, 
these  maybe  called  his  proper  manufactures;  and  what- 
soever he  borrows  from  abroad,  these  may  be  termed  his 
proper  treasures;  both  together  make  a  wealthy  and  a 
happy  mind. 

How  many  excellent  judgments  and  reasonings  are 
framed  in  the  mind  of  a  man  of  wisdom  and  study  in 
a  length  of  years!  How  many  worthy  and  admirable 
notions  has  lie  been  possessed  of  in  life,  both  by  his  own 
reasonings,  and  by  his  prudent  and  laborious  collec- 
tions in  the  course  of  his  reading!  But,  alas!  how  many 
thousands  of  tliein  vanish  away  again  and  are  lost  in 
empty  air,  for  want  of  a  stronger  and  more  retentive 
memory!  When  a  young  practitioner  in  the  law  was 
once  said  to  contest  a  point  of  debate  with  that  great 
lawyer  in  the  last  age,  Serjeant  Maynard,  he  is  reported 
to  have  answered  him,  "  Alas!  young  man,  1  have  forgot 
much  more  law  than  ever  thou  hast  learnt  or  read." 

What  an  unknown  and  unspeakable  happiness  would 
it  be  to  a  man  of  judgment,  and  who  is  engaged  in  the 
pursuit  of  knowledge,  if  he  had  but  a  power  of  stamping 
all  his  own  best  sentiments  upon  his  memory  in  some 
indelible  characters;  and  if  he  could  but  imprint  every 
valuable  paragraph  and  sentiment  of  the  most  excellent 
authors  he  has  read,  upon  his  rnind,  with  the  same  speed 
and  facility  with  which  he  read  them!  If  a  man  of 
good  genius  and  sagacity  could  but  retain  and  survey 
all  those  numerous,  those  wise  and  beautiful  ideas  at 
once,  which  have  ever  passed  through  his  thoughts  upon 
any  one  subject,  how  admirably  would  he  be  furnislied  to 
pass  a  just  judgment  about  all  present  objects  and  oc- 
currences! What  a  glorious  entertainment  and  pleasure 
would  felicitate  his  spirit,  if  he  could  grasp  all  these  in 
a  single  survey,  as  the  skilful  eye  of  a  painter  runs  over 
a  fine  and  complicate  piece  of  history  wrought  by  the 
hand  of  a  Titian  or  a  Raphael,  views  the  whole  scene 
at  once,  and  feeds  himself  with  the  extensive  delight! 
But  these  are  joys  that  do  not  belong  to  mortality. 


156  OF  IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY. 

Thus  far  T  ]iave  indulg'ed  some  loose  and  unconnected 
thoughts  and  remarks  with  regard  to  the  different  powers 
of  wit,  memory,  and  judgment.  For  it  was  very  diffi- 
cult to  throw  them  into  a  regular  form  or  method  with- 
out more  room.  Let  us  now  with  more  regularity  treat 
of  the  memory  alone. 
"Though  the  memory  be  a  natural  faculty  of  the  mind 
of  man,  and  belongs  to  spirits  which  are  not  incarnate — 
though  the  mind  itself  is  immaterial — a  principle  super- 
added to  matter,  yet  the  brain  is  the  instrument  which 
it  employs  in  all  its  operations.  Though  it  is  not  mat- 
ter, yet  it  works  by  means  of  matter,  and  its  operations 
are  materially  affected  by  the  condition  of  the  brain,  its 
principal  organ.  Through  the  medium  of  the  brain  and 
nervous  system  the  mind  obtains  a  knowledge  of  the 
external  world.  The  memory  receives  impressions  of 
facts  and  events,  and  treasures  up  their  images  ;  and 
it  also  becomes  the  retentive  receptacle  of  the  ideas  and 
conclusions  derived  from  meditation  and  reflection. 

The  immaturity  of  the  brain  in  early  life  readers  it 
incapable  of  becoming  the  instrument  of  powerful  mental 
actions,  and  the  images  which  are  then  impressed  upon 
the  memory  are  chiefly  those  of  facts  and  events.  The 
memory  grows  from  the  period  of  infancy,  and  may  be 
greatly  improved  by  proper  exercise,  or  injured  by  sloth. 

The  improvement  of  the  memory  requires  the  culti- 
vation of  habits  of  attention,  or  of  intense  application  of 
the  mind  to  whatever  is,  at  the  time,  its  more  immediate 
object  of  pursuit.  iSlight  impressions  are  soon  forgotten, 
but  whatever  is  impressed  upon  the  mind  by  fixed  atten- 
tion and  close  thought,  is  indelibly  stamped  upon  the 
memory,  and  becomes  as  durable  as  the  mind  itself 

Many  persons  of  advanced  age  will  tell  long  stories 
of  things  which  occurred  during  the  early  period  of  their 
lives,  and  were  so  deeply  engraven  upon  the  memory 
as  to  be  retained  in  their  most  minute  particulars  tlirough 
a  long  succession  of  years. 

The  memory  is  more  or  less  affected  by  various  dis- 
eases of  the  body  ;  chiefly  from  injuries  of  the  iiead, 
affections  of  the  brain,  fever,  and  diseases  of  extreme 
debility.    Numerous  cases  are  on  record  of  persons  who, 


OF  IMPROVIVG  THE   MEMORY.  157 

from  the  influence  of  disease,  have  recovered  a  know- 
ledge of  things  long  forgotten  ;  and  of  others  who  have 
lost  all  knowledge  of  persons  and  things.  A  man  who 
was  born  in  France,  but  had  spent  most  of  his  life  in 
England,  and  entirely  lost  the  habit  of  speaking  French, 
received  an  injury  on  the  head,  aud,  during  the  illness 
which  followed,  always  spoke  in  the  French  language. 
Another,  when  recovering  from  an  injury  of  the  head, 
spoke  the  Welsh  language,  which  he  learned  in  child- 
hood, but  had  subsequently  entirely  forgotten.  Another 
entirely  lost  his  mental  faculties  during  a  severe  illness. 
For  several  weeks  subsequent  to  his  recovery  he  re- 
membered nothing,  and  understood  nothing  ;  but  at  the 
expiration  of  two  or  ihree  months  he  gradually  recovered 
his  memory  and  other  faculties. 

Impressions  which  are  deeply  engraven  upon  the 
mind  appear  never  to  be  effaced  ;  but  the  power  of 
calling  them  up  is  sometimes  lost,  until  sickness  or  some 
other  cause  restores  that  power.  The  faculties  of  the 
mind  are  greatly  assisted  or  injured  by  the  condition  of 
the  brain,  which  in  most  aged  people  relaxes  its  energies, 
and  a  want  of  close  attention  to  passing  events  prevents 
lasting  impressions  from  being  made  on  the  memory. 

The  brain  being  the  chief  instrument  of  the  mind, 
whatever  tends  to  promote  a  healthful  and  vigorous 
condition  of  that  organ  may  help  to  preserve  the 
memory ;  but  excess  of  wine,  or  luxury  of  any  kind, 
as  well  as  excess  in  study  and  application  to  the  biasi- 
ness  of  life,  may  injure  the  memory  by  overstraining 
and  weakenin<r  the  brain." 

A  good  memory  has  these  several  qualifications. 

1.  It  is  ready  to  receive  and  admit,  with  great  ease, 
the  various  ideas  both  of  words  and  things  which  are 
learned  or  taught.  2.  It  is  large  and  copious  to  treas- 
ure up  tliese  ideas  in  great  number  and  variety.  3.  It 
is  strong  and  durable  to  retain  for  a  considerable  time 
those  words  or  thoughts  which  are  committed  to  it.  4. 
It  is  faithful  and  active  to  suggest  and  recollect,  upon 
every  proper  occasion,  all  those  words  or  tlioughts  which 
have  been  recommended  to  its  care,  or  treasured  up 
in  it. 

14 


158  OF  IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY. 

Now  in  every  one  of  these  qualifications  a  memory 
may  be  injured  or  may  be  improved:  yet  I  shall  not  in- 
sist distinctly  on  tliese  particulars,  but  only  in  o-eneral 
propose  a  few  rules  or  directions  whereby  this  noble  fac- 
ulty of  memory,  in  all  its  branches  and  qualifications, 
may  be  preserved  or  assisted,  and  sliow  what  are  the 
practices  that  both  by  reason  and  experience  have  been 
found  of  happy  influence  to  this  purpose. 

There  is  one  great  and  general  direction  which  be- 
longs to  the  improvement  of  other  powers  as  well  as  of 
the  memory,  and  that  is,  to  keep  it  always  in  due  and 
proper  exercise.  Many  acts  by  degrees  form  a  habit, 
and  thereby  the  ability  or  power  is  strengthened,  and 
made  more  ready  to  appear  again  in  action.  Our  mem- 
ories should  be  used  and  inured  from  childhood  to  bear 
a  moderate  quantity  of  knowledge  let  into  them  early, 
and  they  will  thereby  become  strong  for  use  and  service. 
As  any  limb  well  and  duly  exercised  grows  stronger,  the 
nerves  of  the  body  are  corroborated  thereby.  Milo  took 
up  a  calf,  and  daily  carried  it  on  his  shoulders;  as  the 
calf  grew,  his  strength  grew  also,  and  he  at  last  arrived 
at  firmness  of  joints  enough  to  bear  the  bull. 

Our  memories  will  be  in  a  great  measure  moulded 
and  formed,  improved  or  injured,  according  to  the  ex- 
ercise of  them.  If  we  never  use  them,  they  will  be  al- 
most lost.  Those  who  are  wont  to  converse  or  read 
but  a  few  things  only,  will  retain  but  a  few  in  their 
memory;  those  who  are  used  to  remember  things  but  for 
an  hour,  and  charge  their  memories  with  it  no  longer, 
will  retain  them  but  an  hour  before  they  vanish.  And 
let  words  be  remembered  as  well  as  things,  that  so  you 
may  acquire  a  copia  verhorum  as  well  as  rerum,  and  be 
more  ready  to  express  your  mind  on  all  occasions. 

Yet  there  sliould  be  a  caution  given  in  such  cases:  the 
memory  of  a  child  or  any  infirm  person  should  not  be 
overburdened;  for  a  limb  or  a  joint  may  be  overstrained 
by  being  too  much  loaded,  and  its  natural  power  never 
be  recovered.  Teachers  should  wisely  judge  of  the 
power  and  constitution  of  youth,  and  impose  no  more 
on  them  than  they  are  able  to  bear  with  cheerfulness 
and  improvement. 


OF   IMPROVING  THE  MEMORT.  159 

And  particularly  they  should  take  care  that  the  rnem- 
orv  of  the  learner  be  not  too  much  crowded  with  a  tu- 
rn iltuous  heap  or  overbearing  multitude  of  documents 
or  ideas  at  one  time:  this  is  the  way  to  remember  noth- 
ing", one  idea  effaces  another.  An  overgreedy  grasp 
does  not  retain  the  largest  handful.  But  it  is  the  exer- 
cise of  memory  with  a  due  moderation,  that  is  one  ge- 
neral rule  towards  the  improvement  of  it. 

The  particular  rules  are  such  as  these: 

1.  Due  attention  and  diligence  to  learn  and  know 
things,  which  we  would  commit  to  our  remembrance,  is 
a  rule  of  great  necessity  in  this  case.  When  the  atten- 
tion is  strongly  fixed  to  any  particular  subject,  all  that 
is  said  concerning  it  makes  a  deeper  impression  upon 
the  mind.  There  are  some  persons  who  complain  they 
cannot  remember  divine  or  human  discourses  which  they 
hear,  when,  in  truth,  their  thoughts  are  wandering  half 
the  time,  or  they  hear  with  such  coldness  and  indiffer- 
ency,  and  a  trifling  temper  of  spirit,  that  it  is  no  wonder 
the  things  which  are  read  or  spoken  make  but  a  slight 
impression  on  the  mind,  and  get  no  firm  footing  in  the 
seat  of  memory,  but  soon  vanish  and  are  lost. 

Tt  is  needful,  therefore,  if  we  would  maintain  a  long 
remembrance  of  the  things  which  we  read,  or  hear,  that 
we  should  engage  our  delight  and  pleasure  in  those  sub- 
jects, and  use  the  other  methods  which  are  before  pre- 
scribed in  order  to  fix  the  attention.  Sloth,  indolence, 
and  idleness,  will  no  more  bless  the  mind  with  intellec- 
tual riches,  than  it  will  fill  the  hand  with  gain,  the  field 
with  corn,  or  the  purse  with  treasure. 

Let  it  be  added  also,  that  not  only  the  slothful  and 
the  negligent  deprive  themselves  of  proper  knowledge 
for  the  furniture  of  their  memory,  but  such  as  appear 
to  have  active  spirits,  who  are  ever  skimming  over  the 
surface  of  things  with  a  volatile  temper,  will  fix  nothing 
in  their  mind.  Vario  will  spend  whole  mornings  in 
running  over  loose  and  unconnected  pages,  and  with 
fresh  curiosity  is  ever  glancing  over  new  words  and 
ideas  that  strike  his  present  fancy;  he  is  fluttering  over 
a  thousand  objects  of  art  and  science,  and  yet  treasures 
up  but  little  knowledge.     There  must  be  the  labour  and 


160  OF  IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY. 

the  diligence  of  close  attention  to  particular  subjects  of 
thought  and  inquiry,  which  only  can  impress  what  wo 
read  or  think  of  upon  the  remembering  faculty  of  man. 

2.  Clear  and  distinct  apprehension  of  tiie  things 
which  we  commit  to  memory  is  necessary  in  order  to 
make  them  stick  and  dwell  there.  If  we  would  remem- 
ber words,  or  learn  the  names  of  persons  or  things,  we 
should  have  them  recommended  to  our  memory  by  a 
clear  and  distinct  pronunciation,  spelling,  or  writing. 
If  we  would  treasure  up  the  ideas  of  things,  notions, 
propositions,  arguments,  and  sciences,  these  should  be 
recommended  also  to  our  memory  by  a  clear  and  dis- 
tinct perception  of  them.  Faint,  glimmering,  and  con- 
fused ideas  will  vanish  like  images  seen  in  twilight. 
Every  thing  which  we  learn  should  be  conveyed  to  the 
understanding  in  the  plainest  expressions,  without  any 
ambiguity,  that  we  may  not  mistake  what  we  desire  to 
remember.  This  is  a  general  rule,  whether  we  would 
employ  the  memory  about  words  or  things,  though  it 
must  be  confessed  that  mere  sounds  and  words  are  much 
harder  to  get  by  heart  than  the  knowledge  of  things  and 
real  images. 

For  this  reason  take  heed  (as  I  have  often  before 
warned)  that  you  do  not  take  up  with  words  instead  of 
things,  nor  mere  sounds  instead  of  real  sentiments  and 
ideas.  Many  a  lad  forgets  what  has  been  tauglit  him, 
merely  because  he  never  well  understood  it;  he  never 
clearly  and  distinctly  took  in  the  meaning  of  those 
sounds  and  syllables  which  he  was  required  to  get  by 
heart. 

This  is  one  true  reason  why  boys  make  so  poor  a 
proficiency  in  learning  the  Latin  tongue  under  masters 
who  teach  them  by  grammars  and  rules  written  in  Lat- 
in, of  whicii  I  have  spoken  before.  And  this  is  a  com- 
mon case  with  children  when  they  learn  their  catechisms 
in  their  early  days.  The  language  and  the  sentiments 
conveyed  in  those  catechisms  are  far  above  the  under- 
standing of  creatures  of  that  age,  and  they  have  no  tol- 
erable ideas  under  the  words.  This  makes  the  answers 
much  harder  to  be  remembered,  and  in  truth  they  learn 
nothing  but  words  without  ideas;  and  if  they  are  ever 


OF  IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY.  161 

SO  perfect  in  repeating  the  words,  yet  they  know  noth- 
ing of  divinity. 

And  for  this  reason  it  is  a  necessary  rule  in  teaching 
children  the  principles  of  religion,  tliat  they  should  be 
expressed  in  very  plain,  easy,  and  familiar  words, 
brougiit  as  low  as  possible  down  to  their  understandings, 
according  to  their  different  ages  and  capacities,  and 
thereby  they  will  obtain  some  useful  knowledge  when 
the  words  are  treasured  up  in  their  memory,  because  at 
the  same  time  the}'  will  treasure  up  those  divine  ideas  too. 

3.  Method  and  regularity  in  the  things  we  commit  to 
memory,  is  necessary  in  order  to  make  them  take  more 
effectual  possession  of  tlio  mind,  and  abide  tliere  long. 
As  much  as  systematical  learnijig  is  decried  by  some 
vain  and  humorous  triflers  of  the  age,  it  is  certainly  the 
happiest  way  to  furnish  tlie  mind  with  a  variety  of 
knowledge. 

Whatsoever  you  would  trust  to  your  memory,  let  it 
be  disposed  in  a  proper  method,  connected  well  togeth- 
er, and  referred  to  distinct  and  particular  heads  or  clas- 
ses, both  general  and  particular.  An  apothecary's  boy 
will  much  sooner  learn  all  the  medicines  in  his  master's 
shop,  when  they  are  ranged  in  boxes  or  on  shelves  ac- 
cording to  their  distinct  natures,  whether  herbs,  drugs, 
or  I'hinerals,  whether  leaves  or  roots,  whether  chymical 
or  galenical  preparations,  whether  simple  or  compound, 
&c.  and  when  they  are  placed  in  some  order  according 
to  their  nature,  their  fluidity,  or  their  consistence,  &c. 
in  phials,  bottles,  gallipots,  cases,  drawers,  &.C.;  so  the 
genealogy  of  a  family  is  more  easily  learnt  when  you 
begin  at  some  great-grandfather  as  the  root,  and  distin- 
guish the  stock,  tlie  large  boughs,  the  lesser  branches, 
the  twigs,  and  the  buds,  till  you  come  down  to  the  present 
infants  of  the  house.  And,  indeed,  all  sorts  of  arts  and 
sciences  taught  in  a  method  something  of  this  kind  are 
more  happily  committed  to  the  mind  or  memory. 

I  might  give  anotlier  plain  simile  to  confirm  the  truth 
of  this.  What  horse  or  carriage  can  take  up  and  bear 
away  all  the  various  rude  and  unwieldy  loppings  of  a 
branchy  tree  at  once?  But  if  they  are  divided  yet  fur- 
therj  so  as  to  be  laid  close,  and  bound  up  in  a  more  uni- 
14* 


162  OF  IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY. 

form  manner  into  several  faggots,  perhaps  those  lop- 
pings may  be  all  carried  at  one  single  load  or  burden. 

The  mutual  dependance  of  things  on  each  other  help 
the  memory  of  both.  A  wise  connexion  of  the  parts 
of  a  discourse,  in  a  rational  method,  gives  great  advan- 
tage to  the  reader  or  hearer  in  order  to  his  remembrance 
of  it.  Therefore  many  matliematical  demonstrations 
in  a  long  train  may  be  remembered  much  better  than  a 
heap  of  sentences  wl)ich  have  no  connexion.  The  book 
of  Proverbs,  at  least  from  the  tenth  chapter  and  on- 
wards, is  much  harder  to  remember  than  the  book  of 
Psalms,  for  this  reason;  and  some  Christians  have  told 
me  that  they  remember  what  is  written  in  the  Epistle 
to  the  Romans,  and  tliat  to  the  Hebrews,  much  better 
than  many  others  of  the  sacred  Epistles,  because  there 
is  more  exact  method  and  connexion  observed  in  them. 

He  that  would  learn  to  remember  a  sermon  which  he 
hears,  should  acquaint  himself  by  degrees  with  tlie 
method  in  which  the  several  important  parts  of  it  are 
delivered.  It  is  a  certain  fault  in  a  multitude  of  preach- 
ers, that  they  utterly  neglect  method  in  tlieir  ha- 
rangues; or  at  least  they  refuse  to  render  their  method 
visible  and  sensible  to  the  hearers.  One  would  be  tempt- 
ed to  think  it  was  for  fear  lest  their  auditors  should  re- 
member too  much  of  their  sermons,  and  prevent  their 
preaching  them  three  or  four  times  over:  but  I  iiave  can- 
dour enough  to  persuade  myself  that  the  true  reason  is, 
they  imagine  it  to  be  a  more  modish  way  of  preaching 
without  particulars:  I  am  sure  it  is  a  much  more  useless 
one.  And  it  would  be  of  great  advantage  both  to  the 
speaker  and  hearer  to  have  discourses  for  the  pulpit  cast 
into  a  plain  and  easy  method,  and  the  reasons  or  infer- 
ences ranged  in  a  proper  order,  and  that  under  the  words, 
first,  secondly,  and  thirdly,  however  they  may  be  now 
fancied  to  sound  unpolite  or  unfashionable;  but  Arch- 
bishop Tillotson  did  not  think  so  in  his  days. 

4.  A  frequent  review,  and  careful  repetition  of  the 
things  we  would  learn,  and  an  abridgment  of  them  in 
a  narrow  compass  for  this  end,  has  a  great  influence  to 
fix  them  in  the  memory;  therefore  it  is  that  the  rules  of 
grammar,  and  useful  examples  of  the  variation  of  words, 


OF  IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY.  163 

and  the  peculiar  forms  of  speech  in  any  languag-e,  are 
so  often  appointed  by  tlie  masters  as  lessons  for  the  schol- 
ars to  be  frequently  repeated;  and  they  are  contracted 
into  tables  for  frequent  review,  that  what  is  not  fixed  in 
the  mind  at  first,  may  be  stamped  upon  the  memory  by 
a  perpetual  survey  and  rehearsal. 

Repetition  is  so  very  useful  a  practice,  that  Mnemon, 
even  from  his  youth  to  his  old  age.,  never  read  a  book 
without  making  some  small  points,  dashes,  or  hooks,  in 
the  marafui,  to  mark  what  parts  of  the  discourse  were 
proper  for  review:  and  when  he  came  to  the  end  of  a 
section  or  chapter;  he  always  shut  his  book,  and  recol- 
lected all  the  sentiments  or  expressions  he  had  remark- 
ed, so  that  he  could  give  a  tolerable  analysis  and  abstract 
of  every  treatise  he  had  read,  just  after  he  had  finished 
it.  Thence  he  became  so  well  furnished  with  a  rich 
variety  of  knowledge. 

Even  when  a  person  is  hearing  a  sermon  or  a  lecture, 
ho  may  give  his  thoughts  leave  now  and  then  to  step 
back  so  far  as  to  recollect  tlie  several  heads  of  it  from 
tlie  beginning,  two  or  three  times  before  the  lecture  or 
sermon  is  finished:  the  omission  or  the  loss  of  a  sentence 
or  two  among  the  amplifications  is  richly  compensated 
by  preserving  in  the  mind  the  method  and  order  of  the 
whole  discourse  in  the  most  important  branches  of  it. 

If  we  would  fix  in  the  memory  the  discourses  we  hear, 
or  what  we  design  to  speak,  let  us  abstract  them  into 
brief  compends,  and  review  them  often.  Lawyers  and 
divines  have  need  of  such  assistances:  they  write  down 
short  notes  or  hints  of  the  principal  heads  of  what  they 
desire  to  commit  to  tlieir  memory  in  order  to  preach  or 
plead,  for  sucli  abstracts  or  epitomes  may  be  reviewed 
much  sooner,  and  the  several  amplifying  sentiments  or 
sentences  will  be  more  easily  invented  or  recollected  in 
their  proper  places.  The  art  of  shorthand  is  of  excel- 
lent use  for  this  as  well  as  for  other  purposes.  It  must 
be  acknowledged,  that  those  who  scarcely  ever  take  a 
pen  in  their  hand  to  write  short  notes  or  hints  of  what 
they  are  to  speak  or  learn,  wlio  never  try  to  cast  things 
into  method,  or  to  contract  the  survey  of  them  in  order 
to  commit  them  to  their  memory,  had  need  have  a 


164  OF  IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY. 

double  degree  of  that  natural  power  of  retaining  and  re- 
collecting what  they  read,  or  hear,  or  intend  to  speak. 

Do  not  plunge  yourself  into  other  businesses  or  studies, 
amusements  or  recreations,  immediately  after  you  have 
attended  upon  instruction,  if  you  can  well  avoid  it.  Get 
time  if  possible  to  recollect  the  things  you  have  heard, 
that  they  may  not  be  washed  all  away  from  the  mind 
by  a  torrent  of  other  occurrences  or  engagements,  nor 
lost  in  the  crowd  or  clamour  of  other  loud  or  importunate 
affairs. 

Talking  over  the  things  which  you  have  read  with 
your  companions  on  the  first  proper  opportunity  you 
have  for  it,  is  a  most  useful  manner  of  review  or  repeti- 
tion, in  order  to  fix  them  upon  the  mind.  Teach  them 
your  younger  friends,  in  order  to  establish  your  own 
knowledge  wliile  you  communicate  it  to  tliern.  The 
animal  powers  of  your  tongue  and  of  your  ear,  as  well 
as  your  intellectual  faculties,  will  all  join  together  to 
help  the  memory.  Hermetas  studied  hard  in  a  remote 
corner  of  the  land,  and  in  solitude,  yet  he  became  a 
very  learned  man.  He  seldom  was  so  liappy  as  to  en- 
joy suitable  society  at  home,  and  therefore  he  talked 
ov6r  to  the  fields  and  the  woods  in  the  evening  what  he 
had  been  reading  in  the  day,  and  found  so  considerable 
advantage  by  this  practice  that  lie  recommended  it  to 
all  his  friends,  since  he  could  set  his  probatum  to  it  for 
seventeen  years. 

5.  Pleasure  and  delight  in  the  things  we  learn  give 
great  assistance  towards  the  remembrance  of  them. 
Whatsoever  therefore  we  desire  that  a  child  should  com- 
mit to  his  memory,  make  it  as  j)leasant  to  him  as  possi- 
ble; endeavour  to  search  his  genius  and  his  temper,  arxl 
let  him  take  in  the  instructions  you  give  him  or  the 
lessons  you  appoint  him,  as  far  as  may  be,  in  a  way 
suited  to  his  natural  inclination.  Fabellus  would  never 
learn  any  moral  lessons  till  they  were  moulded  into  the 
form  of  some  fiction  or  fable  like  tliose  of  ^Esop,  or  till 
they  put  on  the  appearance  of  a  parable,  like  those 
wherein  our  blessed  Saviour  taught  the  ignorant  world; 
then  he  remembered  well  the  emblematical  instructions 
that  were  given  him,  and  learnt  to  practice  the  moral 


OF  IMPROVING    THE  MEMORY.  166 

sense  and  meaning  of  them.  Young  Speoh/iias  was 
taught  virtue  by  setting  before  him  a  variety  of  exam- 
ples of  tlie  various  good  qualities  in  human  life;  and  lie 
was  appointed  daily  to  repeat  some  story  of  this  kind 
out  Valerius  Maximus.  The  same  lad  was  early  instruct- 
ed to  avoid  the  common  vices  and  follies  of  youth  in  the 
same  manner.  This  is  akin  to  the  method  whereby  the 
Lacedaemonians  trained  up  their  children  to  hate  drunk- 
enness and  intemperance,  viz.  by  bringing  a  drunken 
man  into  their  company,  and  showing  them  what  a  beast 
he  had  inade  of  himself.  Such  visible  and  sensible  forms 
of  instruction  will  make  long  and  useful  impressions 
upon  the  memory. 

Children  may  be  taught  to  remember  many  things 
in  a  way  of  sport  and  play.  Some  young  creatures 
have  learnt  their  letters  and  syllables,  and  the  pronounc- 
ing and  spelling  of  words,  by  having  them  pasted  or 
v^^ritten  upon  many  little  flat  tablets  or  dies.  Some  have 
been  taught  vocabularies  of  different  languages,  having 
a  word  in  one  tongue  written  on  one  side  of  these  tablets, 
and  the  same  word  in  another  tongue  on  the  other  side 
of  them. 

There  might  be  also  many  entertaining  contrivances 
for  the  instruction  of  children  in  seveial  things  relating 
to  geometry,  geography,  and  astronomy,  in  such  allur- 
ing and  illusory  methods,  which  v/ould  make  a  most 
agreeable  and  lasting  impression  on  their  minds. 

6.  Tl)e  memory  of  useful  things  may  receive  con- 
siderable aid  if  they  are  thrown  into  verse;  for  the  num- 
bers and  measures,  and  rhyme,  according  to  the  poesy 
of  different  languages,  have  a  considerable  influence 
upon  mankind,  both  to  make  them  receive  with  more 
ease  the  things  proposed  to  their  observation,  and  pre- 
serve tliem  longer  in  their  remembrance.  How  many 
are  there  of  the  common  affairs  of  human  life  which 
have  been  taught  in  early  years  by  the  help  of  rhyme, 
and  have  been  like  nails  fastened  in  a  sure  place,  and 
riveted  by  daily  use! 

So  the  number  of  the  days  of  each  month  are  engraven 
on  the  memory  of  thousands  by  these  four  lines: — 


166  OF  IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY. 

Thirty  days  hath  September, 
June,  and  April,  and  November; 
February  twenty-eight  alone; 
All  the  rest  have  thirty-one. 

So  lads  have  been  taught  frugahty  by  surveying  and 
judghig  of  their  own  expences  by  these  three  hnes: — 

Compute  the  pence  but  of  one  day's  expence, 
So  many  pounds,  and  angels,  groats,  and  pence, 
Are  sj)ent  in  one  whole  year's  circumference. 

For  the  number  of  days  in  a  year  is  three  hundred  and 
sixty-five,  which  number  of  pence  makes  one  pound, 
one  angel,  one  groat,  and  one  penny. 

So  have  rules  of  health  been  prescribed  in  the  book 
called  Schola  Salernitani,  and  many  a  person  has  pre- 
served himself  doubtless  from  evening  gluttony,  and 
the  pains  and  diseases  conseqiaent  upon  it,  by  these  two 
lines: — 

Ex  magna  coena  stomacho  fit  maxima  poena: 
Ut  sis  nocte  levis,  sit  tibi  coena  brevis. 

Englished: — 

To  be  easy  all  night 
Let  your  supper  be  light; 
Or  else  you'll  complain 
Of  a  stomach  in  pain. 

And  a  hundred  proverbial  sentences  in  various  lan- 
guages are  formed  into  rhyme  or  a  verse,  whereby  they 
are  made  to  stick  upon  the  memory  of  old  and  young. 

It  is  from  this  principle  that  moral  rules  have  been 
cast  into  a  poetic  mould  from  all  antiquity.  So  the 
golden  verses  of  the  Pythagoreans  in  Greek;  Cato's  dis- 
tiches De  Moribns  in  Latin,  Lilly's  precepts  to  scholars, 
called  Qui  Mihi,  with  many  otliers;  and  tbis  has  been 
done  with  very  good  success.  A  line  or  two  of  this 
kind,  recurring  on  the  nieinory,  have  often  guarded 
youth  from  a  temptation  to  vice  and  folly,  as  well  as 
put  them  in  mind  of  their  present  duty. 

It  is  for  this  reason  also  that  the  genders,  declensions, 
and  variations  of  nouns  and  verbs  have  been  taught  in 
verse,  oy  those  who  have  complied  with  the  prejudice 
of  long  custom,  to  teach  English  children  the  Latin 


OF  IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY.  167 

tongue  by  rules  written  in  Latin:  and  truly  those  rude 
heaps  of  words  and  terminations  of  an  unknown  tongue 
would  have  never  been  so  happily  learnt  by  heart  by  a 
hundred  thousand  boys  without  this  smoothing  artifice; 
nor  indeed  do  I  know  any  thing  else  can  be  said  with 
good  reason  to  excuse  or  relieve  the  obvious  absurdities 
of  tliis  practice. 

When  you  would  remember  new  things  or  words,  en- 
deavour to  associate  and  connect  them  with  some  words 
or  things  which  you  have  well  known  before,  and  which 
are  fixed  and  establislied  in  your  memory.  This  asso- 
ciation of  ideas  is  of  great  importance  and  force,  and 
may  be  of  excellent  use  in  many  instances  of  human 
life.  One  idea  which  is  familiar  to  the  mind,  connected 
with  others  which  are  new  and  strange,  will  bring  those 
new  ideas  into  easy  remembrance.  Maronides  had  got 
the  first  liundred  lines  of  Virgil's  ^neis  printed  upon  his 
memory  so  perfectly,  that  he  knew  not  only  the  order 
and  number  of  every  word,  but  each  verse  also;  and  by 
this  means  he  would  undertake  to  remember  two  or 
three  hundred  names  of  persons  or  things,  by  some 
rational  or  fantastic  connexion  between  some  word  in  the 
verse,  and  some  letter,  syllable,  property,  or  accident 
of  the  name  or  thing  to  be  remembered,  even  though 
they  had  been  repeated  but  once  or  twice  at  most  in  his 
hearing.  Animato  practised  much  the  same  art  of  me- 
mory, by  getting  the  Latin  names  of  twenty-two  ani- 
mals into  his  head  according  to  the  alphabet,  viz.  asinus, 
basilicus,  canis,  draco,  elephas,  felis,  gryphus,  hircus, 
iuvenis,  leo,  mulus,  noctua,  ovis,  panthera,  quadrupes, 
rhinoceros,  simia,  taurus,  ursus,  xiphius,  hyaena  or  yaena, 
zibetta.  Most  of  these  he  divided  also  into  four  parts, 
viz.  head  and  body,  feet,  fins,  or  wings,  and  tail,  and  by 
some  arbitrary  or  chimerical  attachments  of  each  of 
these  to  a  word  or  thing,  which  he  desired  to  remember, 
he  committed  them  to  the  care  of  his  memory,  and  that 
with  good  success. 

It  is  also  by  this  association  of  ideas  that  we  may 
better  imprint  any  new  idea  upon  the  memory,  by  join- 
ing with  it  some  circumstance  of  the  time,  place,  com- 
pany, &c.  wherein  we  first  observed,  heard,  or  learned 


168  OF  IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY. 

it.  If  v/e  would  recover  an  absent  idea,  it  is  useful  to 
recollect  those  circumstances  of  time,  place,  &c.  The 
substance  will  many  times  be  recovered  and  brought  to 
the  thoughts  by  recollecting  the  shadow:  a  man  recurs 
to  our  fancy  by  remembering  his  garment,  his  size  or 
stature,  his  office  or  employment,  &c.  A  beast,  bird,  or 
fish,  by  its  colour,  figure  or  motion,  by  the  cage,  court- 
yard, or  cistern  wherein  it  was  kept. 

To  this  head  also  we  may  refer  that  remembrarce  of 
names  and  things  which  may  be  derived  from  our  re- 
collection of  their  likeness  to  other  things  which  we 
know;  either  their  resemblance  in  name,  character,  form, 
accident;  or  any  thing  that  belongs  to  them.  An  idea 
or  word  which  lias  been  lost  or  forgotten,  has  been  often 
recovered  by  hitting  upon  some  other  kindred  word  or 
idea  which  has  the  nearest  resemblance  to  it,  and  that 
in  the  letters,  syllables,  or  sound  of  the  name,  as  well  as 
properties  of  the  thing. 

If  we  would  remember  Hippocrates,  or  Galen,  or 
Paracelsus,  think  of  a  physician's  name  beginning  with 
H,  G,  or  P.  If  we  will  remember  Ovidius  Naso,  we 
may  represent  a  man  with  a  large  nose;  if  Plato,  we 
may  think  upon  a  person  with  large  shoulders;  if  Cris- 
pus,  we  shall  fancy  another  with  curled  hair;  and  so  of 
other  things. 

And  sometimes  a  new  or  strange  idea  may  be  fixed 
in  the  memory  by  considering  its  contrary  or  opposite. 
So  if  we  cannot  hit  on  the  word  Goliath,  the  remem- 
brance of  David  may  recover  it;  or  the  name  of  a  Tro- 
jan may  be  recovered  by  thinking  of  a  Greek,  &c. 

8.  In  such  cases  wherein  it  may  be  done,  seek  after  a 
local  memory,  or  a  remembrance  of  what  you  have 
read  by  the  side  or  page  of  where  it  is  written  or  print- 
ed; whether  the  right  or  the  left,  whether  at  the  top, 
the  middle,  or  the  bottom,  whether  at  the  beginning 
of  a  cliapter  or  a  paragraph,  or  the  end  of  it.  It  has 
been  some  advantage,  for  this  reason,  to  accustom  one's 
self  to  books  of  the  same  edition;  and  it  has  been  of  con- 
stant and  special  use  to  divines  and  private  Christians 
to  bo  furnished  with  several  Bibles  of  the  same  edition; 
that  wheresoever  they  are,  whether  in  their  chamber, 


OF  IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY.  169 

parlour,  or  study,  in  the  younger  or  elder  years  of  life, 
they  may  find  the  chapters  and  verses  standing  in  the 
same  parts  of  the  page. 

This  is  also  a  great  convenience  to  be  observed  by 
printers  in  the  new  editions  of  grammars,  psalms,  Tes- 
taments, &c.  to  print  every  cliapter,  paragraph,  or  verse, 
in  the  same  part  of  the  page  as  the  former,  tluit  so  it 
may  yield  a  happy  assistance  to  those  young  learners 
who  find,  and  even  feel,  the  advantage  of  a  local  memory. 

9.  Let  every  thirg  we  desire  to  remember  be  fairly 
and  distinctly  written  and  divided  into  periods,  with 
large  characters  in  the  beginning,  for  by  this  means  we 
shall  tlie  more  readily  imprint  the  matter  and  words  on 
our  minds,  and  recollect  them  with  a  glance,  the  more 
remarkable  the  writing  appears  to  the  eye.  Tiiis  sense 
conveys  the  ideas  to  the  fancy  better  than  any  other; 
and  what  we  have  seen  is  not  so  soon  forgotten  as  what 
we  have  only  heard.  What  Horace  afiirms  of  the  mind 
or  passions  may  be  said  also  of  the  memory: — 

Segnius  irritant  aiiimos  demissa  per  aurem, 
Q,uain  quae  sunt  oculis  subjecta  fidelibus,  et  quae 
Ipse  sibi  trad  it  spectator. 

Applied  thus  in  English: 

Sounds  wiiich  address  the  year  are  lost  and  die    • 
In  one  short,  hour;  but  that  which  strikes  the  eye 
Lives  long  upon  the  mind;  the  faithful  sight 
Engrave*  the  knowledge  with  a  beam  of  light. 

For  the  assistance  of  weak  memories  the  first  letters 
or  words,  of  every  period,  in  every  page,  may  be  writ- 
ten in  distinct  colours;  yellow,  green,  red,  black,  &c.; 
and  if  you  observe  the  same  order  of  colours  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences,  it  will  be  still  the  better.  This  will 
make  a  greater  impression,  and  may  much  aid  the 
memory. 

Under  this  head  we  may  take  notice  of  the  advantage 
which  tlie  memory  gains  by  having  the  several  objects 
of  our  learning  drawn  out  into  schemes  and  tables;  mat- 
ters of  mathematical  science  and  natural  pliilosopliy  are 
not  only  let  into  the  understanding,  but  preserved  in  the 
memory  by  figures  and  diagrams.  The  situation  of  the 
several  parts  of  the  earth  are  better  learned  by  one  day's 
15 


170  OF  IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY. 

conversing  with  a  map  or  a  sea-chart,  than  by  merely 
reading  the  description  of  their  situation  a  hundred 
times  over  in  books  of  geography.  So  the  constella- 
tions in  astronomy,  and  their  position  in  tlie  heavens, 
are  more  easily  renoembered  by  hemispheres  of  the  stars 
well  drawn.  It  is  by  having  such  sort  of  memorials, 
figures,  and  tables,  hung  round  our  studies  or  places  of 
residence  or  resort,  that  our  memory  of  these  things 
will  be  greatly  assisted  and  improved,  as  1  have  shown 
at  large  in  the  twentieth  chapter,  of  the  use  of  sciences. 

I  might  add  here  also,  that  once  wiiting  over  what 
we  design  to  remember,  and  giving  due  attention  to 
what  we  write,  will  fix  it  more  in  the  mind  than  reading 
it  five  times.  And  in  tlie  same  manner,  if  we  had  a 
plan  of  the  naked  lines  of  longitude  and  latitude  pro- 
jected on  the  meridian  printed  for  tliis  use,  a  learner 
might  much  more  speedily  advance  himself  in  the 
knowledge  of  geography  by  his  own  drawing  tlie  fig- 
ures of  all  the  parts  of  the  world  upon  it  by  imitation, 
than  by  many  days  survey  of  a  map  of  the  world  so 
printed. — The  same  also  may  be  said  concerning  the 
constellations  of  heaven,  drawn  by  the  learner  on  a  na- 
ked projection  of  the  circles  of  the  sphere  upon  the 
plane  of  the  equator. 

10.  It  has  sometimes  been  the  practice  of  men  to  im- 
print names  or  sentences  on  their  memory  by  taking  the 
first  letters  of  every  word  of  that  sentence,  or  of  those 
names,  and  making  a  new  word  of  them.  So  the  name 
of  the  Maccabees  is  borrowed  from  the  first  letters  of 
the  Hebrew  words,  which  make  that  sentence  Mi  Ca- 
moka  Bealim  Jehovah,  i.  e.  Who  is  like  thee  among 
the  gods?  which  was  written  on  their  banners.  Jesus 
Christ  our  Saviour  has  been  called  a  fish,  in  Greek 
iXwTij  by  the  fathers,  because  these  are  the  first  letters 
in  those  Greek  words,  Jesus  Christ,  God's  Son,  the  Sa- 
viour. So  the  word  Vibgyor  teaches  us  to  remember 
the  order  of  the  seven  original  colours,  as  they  appear 
by  the  sunbeams  cast  through  a  prism  on  white  paper, 
or  formed  by  the  sun  in  a  rainbow,  according  to  the  dif- 
ferent refrangibility  of  the  rays,  viz,  violet,  indigo,  blue,  i 
green,  yellow,  orange,  and  red. 


OF  DETERMINING  A  QUESTION.  171 

In  this  manner  the  Hebrew  irii^mmarians  teach  their 
students  to  remember  the  letters  which  change  their 
natural  pronunciation  by  tlie  inscription  of  a  dagesh, 
by  gathering  these  six  letters,  beth,  gimel,  daleth,  caph, 
pe,  and  tliau,  into  the  word  Begadchepat;  and  that  they 
might  not  tbrgot  the  letters  named  Quiescent,  viz.  a,  h, 
V,  and  i,  they  are  joined  in  the  word  Ahevi.  So  the  uni- 
versal and  particular  propositions  in  logic  are  remem" 
bared  by  the  words  Barbara,  Celarent,  Darii,  &c. 

Other  artificial  helps  to  memory  may  be  just  men- 
tioned here. 

Dr.  Grey,  in  his  book  called  Memoria  Technica,  has 
exchanged  the  figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  for  some 
consonants,  b,  d,  t,  f,  1,  y,  p,  k,  n,  and  some  vowels,  a, 
e,  i,  o,  u,  and  several  diphthongs,  and  thereby  formed 
words  that  denote  numbers,  which  may  be  more  easily 
remembered:  and  Mr.  Lowe  has  improved  his  scheme 
in  a  small  pamphlet  called  Mnemonics  Delineated; 
whereby  in  seven  leaves  he  has  comprised  almost  an  in- 
finity of  things,  in  science  and  in  common  life,  and  re- 
duced them  to  a  sort  of  measure  like  Latin  verse;  though 
the  words  may  be  supposed  to  be  very  barbarous,  being 
such  a  mixture  of  vowels  and  consonants  as  are  very 
unfit  for  harmony. 

But  after  all,  the  very  writers  on  this  subject  have 
confessed  that  several  of  those  artificial  helps  of  mem- 
ory are  so  cumbersome  as  not  to  be  suitable  to  every 
temper  or  person;  nor  are  they  of  any  use  for  the  deliv- 
,  ery  of  a  discourse  by  memory,  nor  of  much  service  in 
!  learnmg  the  sciences:  but  they  may  be  sometimes  prac- 
;  tised  for  the  assisting  our  remembrance  of  certain  sen- 
tences, numbers,  and  names. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

OF  DETERMINING  A  QUESTION. 

I.  When  a  subject  is  proposed  to  your  thoughts,  con- 
sider whether  it  be  knowable  at  all,  or  no;  and  then 
whether  it  be  not  above  the  reach  of  your  inquiry  and 


172  OF  DETERMINING  A  QUESTION. 

knowledge  in  the  present  state;  and  remember,  that  it 
is  great  waste  of  time  to  busy  yourselves  too  much 
amongst  unsearchables:  the  chief  use  of  these  studies  is 
to  keep  the  mind  humble,  by  finding  its  own  ignorance 
and  weakness. 

II.  Consider  again  whether  the  matter  be  worthy  of 
your  inquiry  at  all;  and  then  how  far  it  may  be  worthy 
of  your  present  search  and  labour  according  to  your  age, 
your  time  of  life,  your  station  in  the  world,  your  capa- 
city, your  profession,  your  chief  design  and  end.  There 
are  many  things  worth  inquiry  to  one  man,  which  are 
not  so  to  another;  and  there  are  things  that  may  de- 
serve the  study  of  the  same  person  in  one  part  of  life, 
which  would  be  improper  or  impertinent  at  another. 
To  read  books  of  the  art  of  preaching,  or  disputes  about 
church  discipline,  are  proper  for  a  theological  student 
in  the  end  of  his  academical  studies,  but  not  at  the  be- 
ginning of  them.  To  pursue  mathematical  studies  very 
largely  may  be  useful  for  a  professor  of  philosophy,  but 
not  for  a  divme. 

III.  Consider  whether  the  subject  of  your  inquiry  be 
easy  or  difficult;  whether  you  have  sufficient  foundation 
or  skill,  furniture  and  advantage  for  tlie  pursuit  of  it. 
't  would  be  madness  for  a  young  statuary  to  attempt 
at  first  to  carve  a  Venus  or  a  Mercury,  and  especially 
without  proper  tools.  And  it  is  equal  folly  for  a  man 
to  pretend  to  make  great  improvements  in  natural  phi- 
losophy without  due  experiments. 

IV.  Consider  whether  the  subject  be  any  ways  useful 
or  no  before  you  engage  in  the  study  of  it:  often  put 
this  question  to  yourselves,  Cui  Bono?  To  what  pur- 
pose? What  end  will  it  attain?  Is  it  for  tli-e  glory  of 
God,  for  the  good  of  men,  for  your  own  advantage,  for 
the  removal  of  any  natural  or  moral  evil,  for  the  attain- 
ment of  any  natural  or  moral  good?  Will  the  profit  be 
equal  to  the  labour?  There  are  many  subtle  imperti- 
nences learned  in  the  schools;  many  painful  trifles,  even 
among  the  mathematical  theorems  and  problems;  many 
difficiles  nugae,  or  laborious  follies  of  various  kinds, 
which  some  ingenious  men  have  been  engaged  in.     A 


OP  DETERMINING  A  QUESTION.  173 

due  reflection  upon  these  things  will  call  the  mind  away 
from  vain  amusements,  and  save  much  time. 

V.  Consider  what  tendency  it  has  to- make  you  wiser 
and  better,  as  well  as  to  make  you  more  learned;  and 
those  questions  which  tend  to  wisdom  and  prudence  in 
our  conduct  among  men,  as  well  as  piety  toward  God, 
are  doubtless  more  important,  and  preferable  beyond 
all  those  inquiries  which  only  improve  our  knowledge 
in  mere  speculations. 

VI.  If  the  question  appear  to  be  well  worth  your  dili- 
gent application,  and  you  are  furnished  witli  the  neces- 
sary requisites  to  pursue  it,  then  consider  whether  it  be 
dressed  up  and  entangled  in  more  words  than  is  needful, 
and  contain  or  include  more  complicated  ideas  than  is 
necessary;  and  if  so,  endeavour  to  reduce  it  to  a  greater 
simplicity  and  plainness,  vvhich  will  make  the  inquiry 
and  argument  easier  and  plainer  all  the  way. 

VII.  If  it  be  stated  in  an  improper,  obscure,  or  ir- 
regular form,  it  may  be  meliorated  by  chancring  the 
phrase,  or  transposing  the  parts  of  it;  but  be  careful 
always  to  keep  the  grand  and  important  point  of  inquiry 
the  same  in  your  new  stating  tlie  question.  Little  tricks 
and  deceits  of  sophistry,  by  sliding  in  or  leaving  out 
such  words  as  entirely  change  the  question  should  be 
abandoned  and  renounced  by  all  fair  disputants  and 
honest  searcliers  after  truth. 

The  stating  a  question  with  clearness  and  justice  goes 
a  great  way  many  times  towards  the  answering  it.  The 
greatest  part  of  true  knowledge  lies  in  a  distinct  percep- 
tion of  things  which  are  in  themselves  distinct;  and  some 
men  give  more  light  and  knowledge  by  ihe  bare  stating 
of  the  question  with  perspicuity  and  justice,  than  others 
by  talking  of  it  in  gross  confusion  for  wiiole  hours  to- 
gether. To  slate  a  question  is  but  to  separate  and  dis- 
entangle the  parts  of  it  from  one  another,  as  well  as 
from  every  thing  which  does  not  concern  the  question, 
and  tlien  lay  the  disentfingled  parts  of  the  question  in 
due  order  and  method:  oftentimes,  without  more  ado, 
this  fully  resolves  the  doubt,  and  shows  the  mind  wliere 
the  truth  lies,  without  argument  or  dispute. 

VIII.  If  the  question  relate  to  an  axiom,  or  first  prin- 
15* 


174  OF  DETERMINING  A  QUESTION. 

ciple  of  truth,  remember  that  a  long-  train  of  consequen- 
ces may  depend  upon  it;  therefore  it  should  not  be  sud- 
denly admitted  or  received. 

It  is  not  enough  to  determine  the  truth  of  a  proposi- 
tion, much  less  to  raise  it  to  the  honour  of  an  axiom  or 
first  principle,  to  say  that  it  has  been  believed  through 
many  ages,  that  it  has  been  received  by  many  nations, 
that  it  is  almost  universally  acknowledged,  or  nobody 
denies  it,  that  it  is  established  by  human  laws,  or  that 
temporal  penalties  or  reproaches  will  attend  the  disbe- 
lief of  it. 

IX.  Nor  is  it  enough  to  forbid  any  proposition  the 
title  of  axiom,  because  it  has  been  denied  by  some  per- 
sons, and  doubted  of  by  others;  for  some  persons  have 
been  unreasonably  credulous,  and  others  have  been  as 
unreasonably  sceptical.  Then  only  should  a  proposition 
be  called  an  axiom,  or  a  self-evident  truth,  when,  by  a 
moderate  attention  to  the  subject  and  predicate,  their 
connexion  appears  in  so  plain  a  light,  and  so  clear  an 
evidence,  as  needs  no  third  idea,  or  middle  term,  to 
prove  them  to  be  connected. 

X.  While  you  are  in  search  after  truth  in  questions 
of  a  doubtful  nature,  or  such  as  you  have  not  yet 
thoroughly  examined,  keep  up  a  just  indifference  to 
either  side  of  the  question,  if  you  would  be  led  honestly 
into  the  truth:  for  a  desire  or  inclination  leaning  to 
either  side  biasses  the  judgment  strangely:  whereas  by 
this  indifference  for  every  thing  but  truth,  you  will  be  ex- 
cited to  examine  fairly  instead  of  presuming,  and  your 
assent  will  be  secured  from  going  beyond  your  evidence. 

XI.  For  the  most  part  people  are  born  to  their  opin- 
ions, and  never  question  the  truth  of  what^their  family, 
or  their  country,  or  their  party  profess.  They  clothe 
their  minds  as  they  do  their  bodies,  after  the  fashion  in 
vogue,  nor  one  of  a  hundred  ever  examined  their  prin- 
ciples. .  It  is  suspected  of  lukewarmness  to  suppose  ex- 
amination necessary;  and  it  will  be  charged  as  a  ten- 
dency to  apostasj',  if  we  go  about  to  examine  them. 
Persons  are  applauded  for  presuming  they  are  in  the 
right,  and,  as  Mr.  Locke  saith,  he  that  considers  and 
inquires  into  the  reason  of  things  is  counted  a  foe  to 


OP   DETERMINING  A  QUESTION.  176 

orthodoxy,  because  possibly  he  may  deviate  from  some 
of  the  received  doctrines.  And  thus  men,  without  any 
industry  or  acquisition  of  their  own  (lazy  and  idle  as 
they  are)  inherit  local  truths,  i.  e.  the  truths  of  that 
place  where  they  live,  and  are  inured  to  assent  without 
evidence. 

This  hath  a  long  and  unhappy  influence;  for  if  a  man 
can  brino;  his  mind  once  to  be  positive  and  fierce  for 
propositions  whose  evidence  he  hath  never  examined, 
and  that  in  matters  of  the  greatest  concernment,  he 
will  naturally  follow  this  short  and  easy  way  of  judg- 
ing and  believing  in  cases  of  less  moment,  and  build  all 
his  opinions  upon  insufficient  grounds. 

XII.  In  determining  a  question,  especially  when  it  is  a 
matter  of  difficulty  and  importance,  do  not  take  up  with 
partial  examination,  but  turn  your  thoughts  on  all  sides, 
to  gather  in  all  the  light  you  can  towards  the  solution 
of  it.  Take  time,  and  use  all  the  helps  that  are  to  be 
attained,  before  you  fully  determine,  except  only  where 
present  necessity  of  action  calls  for  speedy  determination. 

If  you  would  know  wliat  may  be  called  a  partial  ex- 
amination, take  these  instances,  viz. 

When  you  examine  an  object  of  sense  or  inquire  into 
some  matter  of  sensation  at  too  great  a  distance  from 
the  object,  or  in  an  inconvenient  situation  of  it,  or  under 
any  indisposition  of  the  organs,  or  any  disguise  whatso- 
ever relating  to  the  medium  or  the  organ  of  the  object 
itself,  or  when  you  examine  it  by  one  sense  only,  where 
others  might  be  enjpioyed;  or  when  you  inquire  into  it 
by  sense  only,  without  the  use  of  the  understanding,  and 
judgment,  and  reason. 

If  it  be  a  question  which  is  to  be  determined  by  reason 
and  argument,  then  your  examination  is  partial  when 
you  turn  the  question  only  in  one  liglit,  and  do  not  turn 
it  on  all  sides:  when  you  look  upon  it  only  in  its  rela- 
tions and  aspects  to  one  sort  of  object,  and  not  to 
another;  when  you  consider  only  the  advantages  of  it, 
and  the  reasons  for  it,  and  neglect  to  think  of  the  rea- 
sons against  it,  and  never  survey  its  inconveniences  too; 
when  you  determine  on  a  sudden,  before  you  have  given 
yourself  a  due  time  for  weighing  all  circumstances,  &,c. 


176  OF   DETERMINING    A     QUESTION. 

Again,  if  it  be  a  question  of  fact,  depending  upon  the 
report  or  testimony  of  men,  your  examination  is  but 
partial  wlien  you  inquire  only  what  cne  man  or  a  few 
say,  and  avoid  the  testimony  of  others;  when  you  only 
ask  what  those  report  who  were  not  eye  or  ear  witnesses. 
and  neglect  those  who  saw  and  heard  it;  wlien  you 
content  yourself  with  mere  loose-and  general  talk  about 
it,  and  never  enter  into  particulars;  or  when  there  are 
many  who  deny  the  fact,  and  you  never  concern  your- 
self about  their  reasons  for  denying  it,  but  resolve  to  be- 
lieve only  those  who  affirm  it. 

There  is  yet  a  further  fault  in  your  partial  examina- 
tion of  any  question,  when  you  resolve  to  determine  it 
by  natural  reason  only  where  you  might  be  assisted  by 
supernatural  revelation;  or  when  you  decide  the  point 
by  some  word  or  sentence,  or  by  some  part  of  revelation 
witliout  comparing  it  with  other  parts,  which  might  give 
further  light,  and  better  help  to  determine  tlie  meaning. 

It  is  also  a  culpable  partiality,  if  you  examine  some 
doubtful  or  pretended  vision  or  revelation  without  the 
use  of  reason,  or  witliout  the  use  of  tliat  revelation  which 
is  undoubted  and  sufficiently  proved  to  be  divine.  These 
are  all  instances  of  imperfect  examination:  and  we  should 
never  determine  a  question  by  one  or  two  lights,  where 
we  may  have  the  advantage  of  three  or  four. 

XI II.  Take  heed  lest  some  darling  notion,  some  fa- 
vourite hypothesis,  some  beloved  doctrine,  or  some  com- 
mon but  unexamined  opinion,  be  made  a  test  of  the 
truth  or  falsehood  of  all  other  propositions  about  the 
same  subject.  Dare  not  build  much  upon  such  a  notion 
or  doctrine  till  it  be  very  fully  examined,  accurately  ad- 
justed, and  sufficiently  confirmed.  Some  persons,  by 
indulging  such  a  practice,  have  been  led  into  long  ranks 
of  errors;  they  have  found  themselves  involved  in  a  train 
of  mistakes,  by  taking  up  some  petty  hypothesis  or 
principle,  either  in  philosophy,  politics,  or  religion,  upon 
slight  and  insufficient  grounds,  and  establishing  that  as 
a  test  and  rule  by  which  to  judge  of  all  other  things. 

XIV.  For  the  same  reason,  have  a  care  of  suddenly 
determining  any  one  question,   on  which  the  deterrai- 


OF  DETERMINI?fG  A  QUESTION.  177 

nation  of  any  kindred  or  parallel  cases  will  easily  or 
naturally  follow.  Take  heed  of  receiving  any  wrong 
turn  in  your  early  judgment  of  things;  be  watchful  as 
far  as  possible  against  any  false  bias,  which  may  be 
given  to  the  ui>derstanding,  especially  in  younger  years. 
The  Indulgence  of  some  one  silly  opinion,  or  the  giving 
credit  to  one  foolisli  fable,  lays  the  mind  open  to  be  im- 
posed upon  by  many.  The  ancient  Romans  were  taught 
to  believe  that  Romulus  and  Remus,  the  founders  of 
their  state  and  empire,  were  exposed  in  the  woods,  and 
nursed  by  a  wolf:  this  story  prepared  tlieir  minds  for  the 
rece[)tion  of  any  tales  of  the  like  nature  relating  to  other 
countries.  Trojns  Pompeius  would  enforce  tlie  belief, 
that  one  of  the  ancient  kings  of  Spain  was  also  nursed 
and  suckled  by  a  hart,  from  the  fable,  of  Romulus  and 
Remus.  It  was  by  the  same  influence  they  learned  to 
give  up  their  hopes  and  fears  to  omens  and  soothsaying, 
when  they  were  once  persuaded  that  tlie  greatness  of 
their  empire,  and  tlie  glory  of  Romulus  their  founder, 
were  predicted  by  the  happy  omen  of  twelve  vultures 
appearing  to  him  when  he  souglit  where  to  build  the 
city.  They  readily  received  all  the  following  legends, 
of  prodigies,  auguries,  and  prognostics,  for  many  ages 
together,  with  which  Livy  has  furnished  his  huge  history. 

So  the  child  who  is  once  taught  to  believe  anv  one 
occurrence  to  be  a  good  or  evil  omen,  or  any  day  of  the 
month  or  week  to  be  lucky  or  unlucky,  hath  a  wide 
inroad  made  on  the  soundness  of  his  imderstanding  in 
the  following  judgments  of  his  life;  he  lies  ever  open  to 
all  the  silly  impressions  and  idle  tales  of  nurses,  and  im- 
bibes many  a  foolish  story  with  greediness,  which  he 
must  unlearn  again  if  ever  he  become  acquainted  with 
truth  and  wisdom. 

XV.  Have  a  care  of  interesting  your  warm  and  re- 
ligious zeal  in  those  matters  which  are  not  sufficiently 
evident  in  themselves,  or  which  are  not  fully  and 
thoroughly  examined  and  proved;  for  this  zeal,  v.  hether 
right  or  wrong,  when  it  is  once  engaged,  will  have  a 
powerful  influence  to  establish  your  own  minds  in  those 
doctrines  which  are  really  doubtful,  and  to  stop  up  all 
the  avenues  of  further  light.     This  will  bring  upon  the 


178  OF  DETERMININ6S    A  QUESTION. 

soul  a  sort  of  sacred  awe  and  dread  of  heresy,  with  a 
divine  concern  to  maintain  whatever  opinion  you  have 
espoused  as  divine,  tliough  perhaps  you  have  espoused  it 
without  any  just  evidence,  and  ought  to  have  renounced 
it  as  false  and  pernicious. 

We  oug'ht  to  be  zealous  for  the  most  important  points 
of  our  religion,  and  to  contend  earnestly  for  the  faith 
once  dehvered  to  the  saints;  but  we  ought  not  to  employ 
this  sacred  fervour  of  spirit  in  the  service  of  any  article 
till  we  have  seen  it  made  out  with  plain  and  strong  con- 
viction, that  it  is  a  necessary  or  important  point  of  faith 
or  practice,  and  is  either  an  evident  dictate  of  the  light 
of  nature,  or  an  assured  article  of  revelation.  Zeal 
must  not  reign  over  the  powers  of  our  understanding, 
but  obey  thein:  God  is  the  God  of  light  and  truth,  a 
God  of  reason  and  order,  and  lie  never  requires  mankind 
to  use  their  natural  faculties  amiss  for  the  support  of 
his  cause.  Even  the  most  mysterious  and  sublime  doc- 
trines of  revelation  are  not  to  be  believed  without  a  just 
reason  for  it;  nor  should  our  pious  affections  be  engaged 
in  the  defence  of  them  till  we  have  plain  and  convinc- 
ing proof  that  they  are  certainly  revealed,  though  per- 
haps we  may  never  in  tliis  world  attain  to  such  clear 
and  distinct  ideas  of  them  as  we  desire. 

XVI.  As  a  warm  zeal  ought  never  to  be  employed  in 
the  defence  of  any  revealed  truth,  till  our  reason  be  well 
convinced  of  the  revelation;  so  neither  should  wit  and 
banter,  jest  and  ridicule,  ever  be  indulged  to  oppose  or 
assault  any  doctrines  of  professed  revelation,  till  reason 
has  proved  they  are  not  really  revealed;  and  even  then 
these  methods  should  be  used  very  seldom,  and  with 
the  utmost  caution  and  prudence.  Raillery  and  wit 
were  never  made  to  answer  our  inquiries  after  truth, 
and  to  determine  a  question  of  rational  controversy; 
thougli  they  may  sometimes  be  serviceable  to  expose 
to  contempt  those  inconsistent  follies  wliicli  have  been 
first  abundantly  refuted  by  argument,  they  serve  indeed 
only  to  cover  nonsense  with  shame,  when  reason  has 
first  proved  it  to  be  mere  nonsense. 

It  is  therefore  a  silly  and  most  unreasonable  test  which 
some  of  our  deists  have  introduced  to  judge  of  divine 


OP  DETERMINING  A    (iUESTION.  179 

rsvelation,  viz.  to  try  if  it  will  bear  ridicule  and  laugliter. 
They  are  effectually  beaten  in  all  their  combats  at  the 
weapons  of  men,  that  is,  reason  and  argument;  and  it 
would  not  be  unjust  (though  it  is  a  little  uncourtly)  to 
say  that  they  would  now  attack  our  religion  with  the 
talents  of  a  vile  animal,  that  is,  grin  and  grimace. 

I  cannot  think  that  a  jester  or  a  monkey,  a  droll  or  a 
puppet,  can  be  proper  judges  or  deciders  of  controversy. 
That  which  dresses  up  all  things  in  disguise  is  not  likely 
to  lead  us  into  any  just  sentiments  about  them.  Plato 
or  Socrates,  Cfesar  or  Alexander,  might  have  a  fool's 
coat  clapped  upon  any  of  tliem,  and  perhaps,  in  this  dis- 
guise, neither  the  wisdom  of  the  one,  nor  the  majesty 
of  the  other,  would  secure  them  from  a  sneer;  this  treat- 
ment would  never  inform  us  whether  they  were  kings 
or  slaves,  whether  they  were  fools  or  philosophers.  The 
strongest  reasoning,  the  best  sense,  and  the  politest 
thoughts,  may  be  set  in  a  most  ridiculous  light  by  this 
grinning  faculty:  the  most  obvious  axioms  of  eternal 
truth  may  be  dressed  in  a  very  foolish  form,  and  vvrapped 
up  in  artful  absurdities  by  this  talent;  but  they  are  truth, 
and  reason,  and  good  sense  still.  Euclid,  with  all  his 
demonstrations,  might  be  so  covered  and  overwhelmed 
with  banter,  that  a  beginner  in  the  mathematics  might 
be  tempted  to  doubt  whether  his  theorems  were  true  or 
no,  and  to  imagine  they  could  never  be  useful.  So 
weaker  minds  might  be  easily  prejudiced  against  the 
noblest  principles  of  truth  and  goodness;  and  the  younger 
part  of  mankind  might  be  beat  off  from  the  belief  of 
the  most  serious,  the  most  rational  and  important  points, 
even  of  natural  religion,  by  the  impudent  jests  of  a  pro- 
fane wit.  The  moral  duties  of  the  civil  life,  as  well  as 
the  articles  of  Christianity,  may  be  pamted  over  with 
the  colours  of  folly,  and  exposed  upon  a  stage,  so  as  to 
ruin  all  social  and  personal  virtue  among  t.ie  gay  and 
thoughtless  part  of  the  world. 

XVII.  It  should  be  observed  also,  that  these  very  men 
cry  out  loudly  against  the  use  of  all  severe  railing  and 
reproach  in  debates,  and  all  penalties  and  persecutions 
of  the  state,  in  order  to  convince  the  minds  and  con- 
sciences of  men,  and  determine  points  of  truth  and  error. 


180  OF  DETERMINING  A  QUESTION. 

Now  I  renounce  these  penal  and  smarting  methods  of 
conviction  as  mucli  as  they  do,  and  yet  1  think  still 
these  are  every  whit  as  wise,  as  just,  and  as  good  for 
this  purpose  as  banter  and  ridicule.  Why  sliould  public 
mockery  in  print,  or  a  merry  joke  upon  a  stage,  be  a 
better  test  of  trutli  than  severe  railing  sarcasm,  and 
public  persecutions  and  penalties?  Why  should  more 
light  be  derived  to  the  understanding  by  a  song  of 
scurrilous  mirth,  or  a  witty  ballad,  than  there  is  by  a 
rude  cudgel?  When  a  professor  of  any  religion  is  set 
up  to  be  laughed  at,  I  cannot  see  how  tiiis  should  lielp 
us  to  judge  of  tl)e  trutli  of  his  faith  any  better  than  if  he 
were  scourged.  The  jeers  of  a  theatre,  the  pillor}',  and 
the  vvhi})pingpost  are  very  near  akin.  When  the  per- 
son or  his  opinion  is  made  the  jest  of  the  mob,  or  his 
back  the  shambles  of  the  executioner,  1  think  tiiere  is 
no  more  conviction  in  the  one  than  in  the  other. 

XVIII.  Besides,  supposing  it  is  but  barely  possible 
that  tlie  great  God  should  reveal  liis  mind  and  will  to 
men  by  miracle,  vision,  or  inspiration,  it  is  a  piece  of 
contempt  and  profane  insolence  to  treat  any  tolerable 
or  rational  appearance  of  such  a  revelation  with  jest  and 
laughter,  in  order  to  find  whether  it  be  divine  or  not. 
And  yet,  if  this  be  a  proper  test  of  revelation,  it  may  be 
properly  applied  to  the  true  as  well  as  the  false,  in  order 
to  distinguish  it.  Suppose  a  royal  proclamation  was 
sent  to  a  distant  part  of  tlie  kingdom,  and  some  of  the  sub- 
jects should  doubt  whether  it  came  from  tiie  king  or  no; 
is  it  possible  that  wit  and  ridicule  sliould  ever  decide  the 
point?  Or  would  the  prince  ever  think  himself  treated 
with  just  honour  to  have  his  proclamation  canvassed  in 
this  manner  on  a  public  stage,  and  become  the  sport  of  ' 
buftbons,  in  order  to  determine  the  question,  Whether 
it  is  the  word  of  a  king  or  no? 

Let  such  sort  of  writers  go  on  at  their  dearest  peril, 
and  sport  themselves  in  theii  own  deceivings;  let  them 
at  their  peril  make  a  jest  at  the  Bible,  and  treat  the 
sacred  articles  of  Christianity  with  scoff  and  merriment: 
but  then  let  them  lay  aside  all  their  pretences  to  reason 
as  well  as  religion;  and  as  they  expose  themselves  by 
such  writings  to  the  neglect  and  contempt  of  men,  so 


OF  DETERMINING  A  QUESTION.  181 

^et  them  prepare  to  meet  the  majesty  and  indignation 
of  God  without  timely  repentance. 

XIX,  In  reading  philosophical,  moral,  or  religious 
controversies,  never  raise  your  esteem  of  any  opinion 
by  the  assurance  and  zeal  wherewith  the  author  asserts 
it,  nor  by  the  highest  praises  he  bestows  upon  it;  nor, 
on  the  other  hand,  let  your  esteem  of  an  opinion  bo 
abated,  nor  your  aversion  to  it  raised  by  the  supercilious 
contempt  cast  upon  it  by  a  warm  writer,  nor  by  the 
sovereign  airs  with  which  he  condemns  it.  Let  the  force 
of  argument  alone  influence  your  assent  or  dissent. 
Take  care  that  your  soul  be  not  warped  or  biassed  on 
one  side  or  the  other  by  any  strains  of  flattering  or 
abusive  language;  for  there  is  no  question  whatsoever 
but  what  hath  some  such  sort  of  defenders  and  opposers. 
Lea-ve  those  writers  to  their  own  follies  who  practise 
thus  upon  the  weakness  of  their  readers  without  argu- 
ment; leave  thern  to  triumph  in  their  own  fancied  posses- 
sions and  victories:  it  is  ot\entimes  found  that  their  pos- 
sessions are  but  a  heap  of  errors,  and  their  boasted  vic- 
tories are  but  overbearing  noise  and  clamour  to  silence 
the  voice  of  truth. 

In  philosophy  and  religion  the  bigots  of  all  parties  are 
generally  the  most  positive,  and  deal  much  in  this  sort 
of  argument.  Sometimes  these  are  the  weapons  of 
pride,  for  a  haughty  man  supposes  all  his  opinions  to  be 
infallible,  and  imagines  the  contrary  sentiments  are 
ever  ridiculous  and  not  worthy  of  notice.  Sometimes 
these  ways  of  talking  are  the  mere  arms  of  ignorance: 
the  men  who  use  them  know  little  of  the  opposite  side 
of  the  question,  and  therefore  they  e.xult  in  their  own 
vain  pretences  to  knowledge,  as  thougli  no  man  of  sense 
could  oppose  their  opinions.  They  rail  at  an  objection 
against  their  own  sentunents,  because  they  can  find  no 
other  answer  to  it  but  railing.  And  men  of  learning, 
by  their  excessive  vanity,  have  been  sometimes  tempted 
into  the  same  insolent  practice  as  well  as  the  ignorant. 

Yet  let  it  be  remembered  too,  that  there  are  some 

truths  so  plain  and  evident,  that  the  opposition  to  tliem 

is  strange,  unaccountable,  and  almost  monstrous:  and  in 

vindication  of  such  truths  a  writer  of  good  sense  may 

1(5 


182  OF  DETERMINING  A  QUESTION. 

sometimes  be  allowed  to  use  a  degree  of  assurance,  and 
pronounce  them  strongly  with  an  air  of  confidence, 
while  he  defends  them  with  reasons  of  convincing  force. 

XX.  Sometimes  a  question  may  be  proposed  which 
is  of  so  large  and  extensive  a  nature,  and  refers  to  such 
a  multitude  of  subjects,  as  ought  not  in  justice  to  be  de- 
termined at  once  by  a  single  argument  or  .answer:  as  if 
one  should  ask  me,  Are  you  a  professed  disciple  of  the 
Stoics  or  the  Platonists?  Do  you  receive  an  assent  to 
the  principles  of  Gassendus,  Descartes,  or  Sir  Isaac 
Newton?  Have  you  chosen  the  hypothesis  of  Tycho  or 
Copernicus?  Have  you  devoted  yourself  to  the  senti- 
ments of  Arminius,  or  Calvin?  Are  your  notions  epis- 
copal, presbyterian,  or  independent,  &c.?  1  think  it 
may  be  very  proper  in  such  cases  not  to  give  an  answer 
in  the  gross,  but  rather  to  enter  into  a  detail  of  particu- 
lars, and  explain  one's  own  sentiments.  Perhaps  there  is 
no  man,  nor  set  of  men  upon  earth,  whose  sentiments  I 
entirely  follow.  God  has  given  me  reason  to  judge  for 
myself;  and  though  I  may  see  sufficient  ground  to  agree 
to  the  greatest  part  of  the  opinions  of  one  person  oJ 
party,  yet  it  does  by  no  means  follow  that  I  should  re- 
ceive them  all.  Truth  does  not  always  go  by  the  lump, 
nor  does  error  tincture  and  spoil  all  the  articles  of  belief 
that  some  one  party  professes. 

Since  there  are  difficulties  attend  every  scheme  of 
human  knowledge,  it  is  enough  for  me  in  the  main  to 
incline  to  tiiat  side  which  has  the  fewest  difficulties;  and 
I  would  endeavour,  as  far  as  possible,  to  correct  the 
mistakes  or  the  harsh  expressions  of  one  party,  by  soft- 
ening and  reconciling  methods,  by  reducing  tlie  ex- 
tremes, and  by  borrowing  some  of  the  best  pnticiples  Or 
phrases  from  another.  Cicero  was  one  of  tlie  greatest 
men  of  antiquity,  and  gives  us  an  account  of  the  various 
opinions  of  philosophers  in  his  age;  but  he  himself  was 
of  the  eclectic  sect,  and  chose  out  of  each  of  them  such 
positions  as  in  his  wisest  judgment  came  nearest  to  the 
truth. 

XXI.  When  you  are  called  in  the  course  of  life  or  re- 
ligion to  judge  and  determine  concerning  any  question, 
and  to  atfirm  or  deny  it,  take  a  full  survey  of  tlie  objec- 


OF  DETERMINIKG  A  QUESTION'.  183 

tions  against  it,  as  well  as  the  arguments  for  it,  as  far 
as  your  time  and  circumstances  admit,  and  see  on  which 
side  the  prepoiideration  falls.  If  either  the  objections 
against  any  proposition,  or  the  arguments  for  t!ie  defence 
of  it,  carry  in  tliem  most  undoubted  evidence,  and  are 
plainly  unanswerable,  they  will  and  ought  to  constrain 
the  assent,  though  there  may  be  many  seeming  proba- 
bilities on  the  other  side,  which  at  first  sight  would 
flatter  the  judgment  to  favour  it.  But  where  the  reasons 
on  both  sides  are  very  near  of  equal  weight,  there  sus- 
pension or  doubt  is  our  duty,  unless  in  cases  wherein 
present  determination  or  practice  is  required,  and  there 
we  must  act  according  to  the  present  appearing prepon- 
deration  of  reasons. 

XXII.  In  matters  of  moment  and  importance,  it  is 
our  duty  indeed  to  seek  after  certain  and  conclusive  ar- 
guments (if  they  can  be  found)  in  order  to  determine  a 
question;  but  where  the  matter  is  of  little  consequence, 
it  is  not  worth  our  labour  to  spend  much  time  in  seek- 
ing after  certainties;  it  is  sufficient  here,  if  probable  rea- 
sons otfer  themselves.  And  even  in  matters  of  greater 
importance,  especially  where  daily  practice  is  necessary, 
and  where  we  cannot  attain  any  sufficient  or  certain 
grounds  to  determine  a  question  on  either  side,  we  must 
then  take  up  with  sucii  probable  arguments  as  we  can 
arrive  at.  But  this  general  rule  should  be  observed, 
viz.  to  take  heed  that  our  assent  be  no  stronger,  or  rise 
no  higher  in  the  degree  of  it,  than  the  probable  argu- 
ment will  support. 

XXIII.  There  are  many  things  even  in  religion,  as 
well  as  in  philosophy  and  civil  life,  which  we  believe 
with  very  different  degrees  of  assent;  and  this  is,  or 
should  be,  always  regulated  according  to  the  different 
degrees  of  evidence  which  we  enjoy:  and  perhaps  there 
are  a  thousand  gradations  in  our  assent  to  the  things  we 
believe,  because  there  are  thousands  of  circumstances 
relating  to  different  questions,  which  increase  or  dimin- 
ish the  evidence  we  have  concerning  them,  and  that  in 
matters  both  of  reason  and  revelation. 

I  believe  there  is  a  God,  and  that  obedience  is  due  to 
him  from  every  reasonable  creature;  this  I  am  most  fully 


184  OP  DETERMINING  A  QUESTION. 

assured  of,  because  I  have  the  strongest  evidence,  since 
it  is  the  plain  dictate  both  of  reason  and  revelation. 

Again,  1  beheve  there  is  a  future  resurrection  of  the 
dead,  because  scripture  tells  us  so  in  the  plainest  terms, 
though  reason  says  nothing  of  it.  I  believe  also,  that 
the  same  matter  of  our  bodies  which  died  (in  part  at 
least)  shall  arise;  but  I  am  not  so  fully  assured  of  this 
circumstance,  because  the  revelation  of  it  is  not  quite  so 
clear  and  express.  Yet  further,  I  believe  that  tlie  good 
men  who  were  acquainted  here  on  earth  shall  know 
each  other  in  heaven;  but  my  persuasion  of  it  is  not 
absolutely  certain,  because  my  assent  to  it  arises  only 
from  circumstantial  reasonings  of  men  upon  what  God 
has  told  us,  and  therefore  my  evidences  are  not  strong 
beyond  a  possibility  of  mistake.  Tiiis  direction  cannot 
be  too  often  repeated,  that  our  assent  ought  always  to 
keep  pace  with  our  evidence;  and  our  belief  of  any  pro- 
position should  never  rise  higlier  than  the  proof  or  evi- 
dence we  have  to  support  it,  nor  should  our  faith  run 
faster  tlian  right  reason  can  encourage  it. 

XXIV.  Perhaps  it  will  be  objected  here.  Why  then 
does  our  Saviour,  in  the  histories  of  the  Gospel,  so  much 
commend  a  strong  faith,  and  lay  out  both  his  miraculous 
benefits  and  his  praises  upon  some  of  those  poor  crea- 
tures of  little  reasoning  who  professed  an  assured  belief 
of  his  commission  and  power  to  heal  them? 

I  answer,  the  God  of  nature  has  given  every  man  his 
own  reason  to  be  the  judge  of  evidence  to  himself  in 
particular,  and  to  direct  iiis  assent  in  all  things  about 
wliich  he  is  called  to  judge;  and  even  the  matters  of 
revelation  are  to  be  believed  by  us  because  our  reason 
pronounces  the  revelation  to  be  true.  Therefore  the 
great  God  will  not,  or  cannot,  in  any  instance,  require  us 
to  assent  to  any  thing  without  reasonable  or  sufficient 
evidence;  nor  to  believe  any  proposition  more  strongly 
than  what  our  evidence  for  it  will  support.  We  have 
therefore  abundant  ground  to  believe,  that  those  persons 
of  whom  our  Saviour  requires  such  strong  faith,  or  whom 
he  commends  for  their  strong  faith,  had  as  strong  and 
certain  evidence  of  his  power  and  commission  from  the 
credible  and  incontestable  reports  they  had  heard  of  his 


OF  DETERMINING  A  QUESTION.  185 

miracles,  which  were  wrought  on  purpose  to  give  evi- 
dence to  his  commission.*  Now  in  such  a  case,  both 
this  strong  faith  and  the  open  profession  of  it  were  very 
worthy  of  pubHc  encouragement  and  praise  from  our 
Saviour,  because  of  the  great  and  public  opposition 
which  the  magistrates,  and  the  priests,  and  the  doctors 
of  the  age  made  against  Jesus  the  man  of  Nazareth, 
when  he  appeared  as  the  Messiah. 

And  besides  all  this  it  may  be  reasonably  supposed, 
with  regard  to  some  of  those  strong  exercises  of  faith 
which  are  required  and  commended,  tliat  these  believers 
had  some  further  hints  of  inward  evidence  and  immedi- 
ate revelation  from  God  himself;  as  when  St.  Peter  con- 
fesses Ciirist  to  be  the  Son  of  God,  Matt.  xvi.  16,  17, 
our  blessed  Saviour  commends  him  saying,  "Blessed 
art  tlum,  Sitnon  Barjona;"  but  he  adds,  "  Flesh  and. 
blood  hath  not  revealed  it  unto  thee,  but  my  Father  who 
is  in  heaven." 

And  the  same  may  be  said  concerning  the  faith  of 
miracles,  the  exercise  whereof  was  sometimes  required 
of  the  disciples  and  others,  i.  e.  when  by  inward  and 
divine  intluences  God  assured  them  such  miracles  should 
be  wrought,  their  obedience  to  and  compliance  with 
these  divine  illuminations  w:is  expected  and  commended. 
No  A'  this  supernatural  inspiration  carried  sufficient  evi- 
dence with  it  to  tiiem,  as  well  as  to  the  ancient  prophets, 
though  we  who  never  felt  it  are  not  so  capable  to  judge 
and  distinguish  it. 

XXV.  What  is  said  before  concerning  truth  or  doc- 
trines, may  be  also  confirmed  concerning  duties;  the 
reason  of  both  is  the  same;  as  the  one  are  truths  for 
our  speculation,  the  others  are  truths  for  our  practice. 
Duties  which  are  expressly  required  in  the  plain  Ian- 

*  When  our  Saviour  gently  reproves  Thonnas  for  his  unbelief, 
John,  XX.  29,  he  does  it  m  these  words,  "  Because  thou  hast  seen  me, 
Tliomas,  thou  hast  believed:  blessed  are  they  who  have  not  seen, 
and  yet  have  believed,"  i.  e.  Blessed  are  they  who,  though  they 
have  not  been  favoured  with  the  evidence  of  their  senses  as  thou  hast 
been,  yet  have  been  convinced  by  the  reasonable  and  sufficient  moral 
evidence  of  the  well  grounded  report  of  others,  and  have  believed  10 
me  upon  that  evidence.  Of  this  moral  evidence  Mr.  Ditton  writes 
exceedingly  well  in  his  book  of  the  Resurrection  of  Christ. 

16* 


186  OF  DETERMINING  A  QUESTION. 

guage  of  Scripture,  or  dictated  by  the  most  evident 
reasoning  upon  first  principles,  ou.glit  to  bind  our  con- 
sciences more  than  those  wiiich  are  but  dubiously  inferred, 
and  that  only  from  occasional  occurrences,  incidents, 
and  circumstances:  as  for  instance,  I  am  certain  that  I 
ought  to  pray  to  God;  my  conscience  is  bound  to  this, 
because  there  are  most  evident  commands  for  it  to  be 
found  in  Scripture,  as  well  as  to  be  derived  from  reason. 
I  believe  also,  that  1  may  pray  to  God  either  by  a 
written  form  or  without  one,  because  neither  reason  nor 
revelation  expressly  requires  either  of  these  modes  of 
prayer  at  all  times,  or  forbids  the  other.  I  cannot,  there- 
fore, bind  my  conscience  to  practise  the  one  so  as  utterly 
to  renounce  the  other;  but  1  would  practice  either  of 
them  as  my  reason  and  other  circumstances  direct  me. 

Again,  I  believe  that  Christians  ought  to  ren>ember 
the  death  of  Christ  by  the  symbols  of  bread  and  wine; 
and  I  believe  there  ought  to  be  pastors  in  a  Christian 
church  some  way  ordained  or  set  apart  to  lead  the  wor- 
ship, and  to  bless  and  distribute  the  elements;  but  the 
last  of  these  practices  is  not  so  expressly  directed,  pre- 
scribed, and  required  in  Scripture  as  the  former;  and, 
therefore,  I  feel  my  conscience  evidently  bound  to  re- 
member the  death  of  Christ  with  some  society  of  Clirist- 
ians  or  other,  since  it  is  a  most  plain  command,  though 
their  methods  of  ordaining  a  pastor  be  very  dilferent  from 
other  men,  or  from  my  own  opinion;  or  whetlier  the 
person  who  distributes  these  elements  be  only  an  occa- 
sional or  a  settled  administrator;  since  none  of  these 
things  are  plainly  determined  in  Scripture.  I  must  not 
omit  or  neglect  an  express  command,  because  some  un- 
necessary circumstances  are  dubious.  And  1  trust  1 
shall  receive  approbation  from  the  God  of  nature,  and 
from  Jesus  my  judge  at  the  last  day,  if  1  have  endea- 
voured in  this  manner  to  believe  and  pra<tice  e\ery 
thing  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  evidence  which  God 
has  given  me  about  it,  or  which  he  has  put  me  into  a 
capacity  to  seek  and  obtain  in  the  age  and  nation  where- 
in I  live. 

Query,  Whether  the  obstinate  deists  and  the  fatal- 
ists of  Great  Britain  will  find  sufiicient  apology  from 


OF  DETERMINING  A  QUESTION.  187 

this  principle?     But  I  leave  them  to  venture  tlie  awful 
experiment. 

XXVI.  We  may  observe  these  three  rules  in  judging 
of  probabilities  which  are  to  be  determined  by  reason, 
relating  either  to  things  past  or  things  to  come. 

1.  That  which  agrees  most  with  the  constitution  of 
nature  carries  the  greatest  probability  in  it,  wiiere  no 
other  circumstance  appears  to  counterpoise  it:  as  if  I  let 
loose  a  greyhound  within  sight  of  a  hare  upon  a  large 
plain,  there  is  great  probability  the  greyhound  will 
seize  her;  that  a  thousand  sparrows  will  fly  away  at  the 
sight  of  a  hawk  among  them. 

2.  That  which  is  most  conformable  to  the  constant 
observations  of  men,  or  to  experiment  frequently  re- 
peated, is  most  likely  to  be  true;  as  that  a  winter  will 
not  pass  away  in  England  without  some  frost  and  snow; 
that  if  you  deal  out  great  quantities  of  strong  liquor  to 
the  mob,  there  will  be  many  drunk;  that  a  large  assem- 
bly of  men  will  be  of  diiferent  opinions  in  any  doubtful 
point;  that  a  thief  will  make  his  escape  out  of  prison  if 
the  doors  of  it  are  unguarded  at  midnight. 

3.  In,matters  of  fact,  which  are  past  ur  present,  where 
neither  nature,  nor  observation,  nor  custom,  gives  us 
any  sufficient  information  on  either  side  of  the  question, 
there  we  may  derive  a  probability  from  the  attestation 
of  wise  and  honest  men,  by  word  or  writing,  or  the  con- 
curring witnesses  of  multitudes  who  have  seen  and 
known  what  they  relate,  &c.  This  testimony  in  many 
cases  will  arise  to  the  degree  of  moral  certainty.  So 
we  believe  that  the  plant  tea  grows  in  China;  and  that 
the  emperor  of  tlie  Turks  lives  at  Constantinople;  that 
Julius  Caesar  conquered  France,  and  that  Jesus  our  Sa- 
viour lived  and  died  in  Judea;  that  thousands  were  con- 
verted to  the  Christian  faith  in  a  century  after  the  death 
of  Christ;  ar]id  that  the  books  which  contain  the  Christian 
religion  are  certain  histories  and  epistles  which  were 
written  above  a  thousand  years  ago.  There  is  an  infi- 
nite variety  of  such  propositions  which  can  admit  of  no 
reasonable  doubt,  though  they  are  not  matters  which 
are  directly  evident  to  our  own  senses  or  our  mere  rea- 
soning powers. 


188  OP  DETERMINING  A  QUESTION. 

XXVII.  When  a  point  hath  been  well  examined,  and 
our  own  judgment  settled  upon  just  arguments  in  our 
manly  age,  and  after  a  large  survey  of  the  merits  of 
the  cause,  it  would  be  a  weakness  for  us  always  to  con- 
tinue fluttering  in  suspense  We  ought  therefore  to 
stand  firm  in  such  well  established  principles,  and  not  bo 
tempted  to  change  and  alter  for  the  sake  of  every  diffi- 
culty, or  every  occasional  objection.  We  are  not  to  be 
carried  about  with  every  flying  doctrine,  like  cliildren 
tossed  to  and  fro,  and  wavering  with  the  wind.  It  is  a 
good  thing  to  have  the  heart  established  with  grace,  not 
with  meats;  that  is,  in  the  great  doctrines  of  the  gospel 
of  grace,  and  in  Jesus  Christ,  who  is  the  same  yester- 
day, to-day,  and  for  ever;  but  it  is  not  so  necessary  in 
the  more  minute  matters  of  religion,  such  as  meats  and 
drink,  forms  and  ceremonies,  which  are  of  less  impor- 
tance, and  for  which  Scripture  has  not  given  such  ex- 
press directions.  Tliis  is  the  advice  of  the  great  apos- 
tle, Eph.  14;  Heb.  xiii.  8,  9. 

In  short,  those  truths  which  are  the  springs  of  daily 
practice  should  be  settled  as  soon  as  we  can  witli  the 
exercise  of  our  best  powers  after  the  state  of  manhood: 
but  those  things  wherein  we  may  possibly  mistake  should 
never  be  so  absolutely  and  finally  established  and  deter- 
mined as  though  we  were  infallible.  If  the  papists  of 
Great  Britain  had  maintained  such  a  resolute  establish- 
ment and  assurance  in  the  days  of  King  Henry  VIII.  or 
Queen  EHzabeth,  there  never  had  been  a  reformation: 
nor  would  any  heathen  have  been  converted,  even  un- 
der the  ministry  of  St.  Paul,  if  their  obstinate  settlement 
in  their  idolatries  had  kept  their  eyes  shut  against  all 
furtiier  light.  Yet  tiiis  should  not  hinder  us  from  set- 
tling our  most  important  principles  of  faith  and  practice, 
where  reason  shines  with  its  clearest  evidence,  and  the 
word  of  God  plainly  determines  truth  and  duty. 

XXVIII.  But  let  us  remember  also,  that  though  the 
Gospel  be  an  infallible  revelation,  we  are  but  fallible  in- 
terpreters when  we  determine  the  sense  even  of  some 
important  propositions  written  there;  and  therefore, 
though  we  seem  to  be  established  in  the  belief  of  any 
particular  sense  of  Scripture,  and  though  there  may  be 


OF   INCirTP.IVG  INTO,  &C.  189 

just  calls  of  Providence  to  profess  and  subscribe  it,  yet 
there  is  no  need  that  we  should  resolve  or  promise,  sub- 
scribe or  swear,  never  to  change  our  mind,  since  it  is 
possible,  in  the  nature  and  course  of  things,  we  may 
meet  with  such  a  solid  and  substantial  objection  as 
may  give  us  a  quite  different  view  of  things  from  what 
we  once  imagined,  and  may  lay  before  us  sufficient  evi- 
dence of  the  contrary.  We  may  happen  to  find  a  fair- 
er light  cast  over  the  same  Scriptures,  and  see  reason  to 
alter  our  sentiments  even  in  some  points  of  motnent. 
Sic  sentio,  sic  sentiam,  i.  e.  so  I  believe,  and  so  1  will  be- 
lieve, is  the  prison  of  the  soul  for  lifetime,  and  a  bar 
against  all  the  improvements  of  the  mind.  To  impose 
such  a  profession  on  other  men  in  matters  not  absolutely 
necessary,  and  not  absolutely  certain,  is  a  criminal  usur- 
pation and  tyranny  over  faith  and  conscience,  and 
which  none  has  power  to  require  but  an  infallible  dictator. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

OF  INQUIRING  INTO  CAUSES  AND  EFFECTS. 

Some  effects  are  found  out  by  their  causes,  and  some 
causes  by  their  effects.     Let  us  consider  both  these. 

I.  When  we  are  inquiring  into  the  cause  of  any  par- 
ticular effect  or  appearance,  either  in  the  world  of  na- 
ture, or  in  the  civil  or  moral  concerns  of  men,  we  may 
follow  tliis  method: 

1.  Consider  what  effects  or  appearances  you  have 
known  of  a  kindred  nature,  and  what  have  been  the 
certain  and  real  causes  of  them;  for  like  effects  have  ge- 
nerally like  causes,  especially  when  they  are  found  in  the 
same  sort  of  subjects. 

2.  Consider  what  are  the  several  possible  causes  which 
may  produce  such  an  effect,  and  find  out  by  some  cir- 
cumstances how  many  of  those  possible  causes  are  ex- 
cluded in  this  particular  case:  Thence  proceed  by  de- 
grees to  the  probable  causes,  till  a  more  close  attention 
and  inspection  shall  exclude  some  of  them  also,  and 
lead  you  gradually  to  the  real  and  certain  cause. 


190  OF  INQUIRING  INTO 

3.  Consider  what  things  preceded  such  an  event  or  ap- 
pearance, which  might  have  any  influence  upon  it ;  and 
though  we  cannot  certainly  determine  the  cause  of  any 
thing  only  from  its  going  before  the  effect,  yet  among 
the  many  forerunners  we  may  probably  light  upon  the 
true  cause  by  further  and  more  particular  inquiry. 

4.  Consider  whetlier  one  cause  be  sufficient  to  pro- 
duce the  effect,  or  whether  it  does  not  require  a  concur- 
rence of  several  causes;  and  then  endeavour  as  far  as 
possible  to  adjust  the  degrees  of  influence  that  each 
cause  might  have  in  producing  the  effect,  and  the  prop- 
er agency  and  influence  of  each  of  them  therein. 

So  in  natural  philosophy,  if  1  would  find  what  are 
principles  or  causes  of  tliat  sensation  which  we  call  heat 
when  I  stand  near  the  fire;  here  I  shall  find  it  is  neces- 
sary that  there  be  an  agency  of  the  particles  of  fire  on 
my  flesh,  either  mediately  by  themselves,  or  at  least 
by  the  intermediate  air;  tiiere  must  be  a  particular  sort 
of  motion  and  vellication  impressed  upon  my  nerves; 
there  must  be  a  derivation  of  that  motion  to  tlie  brain; 
and  there  must  be  an  attention  of  my  soul  to  this  motion; 
if  either  of  these  are  wanting,  the  sensation  of  heat  will 
not  be  produced. 

So  in  the  moral  world,  if  I  inquire  into  the  revolu- 
tion of  a  state  or  kingdom,  perhaps  I  find  it  brought 
about  by  the  tyranny  and  folly  of  a  prince,  or  by  the 
disaffection  of  his  own  subjects;  and  this  disaffection 
and  opposition  may  arise  either  upon  the  account  of 
impositions  in  religion,  or  injuries  relating  to  their  civil 
rights;  or  tlie  revolution  may  be  effected  by  the  invasion 
of  a  foreign  army,  or  by  the  opposition  of  some  person 
at  home  or  abroad  that  lays  claim  to  the  government, 
&c.  or  a  here  who  would  guard  the  liberties  of  the  peo- 
ple; or  by  many  of  these  concurring  together:  then  we 
must  adjust  the  influences  of  eacii  as  wisely  as  we  can, 
and  not  ascribe  tlie  whole  event  to  one  of  tliem  alone. 

11.  When  we  are  inquiring  into  the  effects  of  any 
particular  cause  or  causes,  we  may  follow  this  method: 

1.  Consider  diligently  the  nature  of  every  cause  apart, 
and  observe  what  effect  every  part  or  property  of  it  will 
tend  to  produce. 


CAUSES  AND  EFFECTS.  191 

2.  Consider  the  causes  united  together  in  their  seve- 
ral natures,  and  ways  of  operation:  inquire  how  far  the 
powers  or  properties  of  one  will  hinder  or  promote  the 
effects  of  the  other,  and  wisely  balance  the  propositions 
of  their  influence. 

3.  Consider  what  the  subject  is,  in  or  upon  which  tlie 
cause  is  to  operate:  for  the  same  cause  on  different  sub- 
jects will  oftentimes  produce  different  effects;  as  the  sun 
which  softens  wax  will  harden  clay. 

4.  Be  frequent  and  diligent  in  nmking  all  proper  ex- 
periments, in  setting  such  causes  at  work,  whose  effects 
you  desire  to  know,  and  putting  togetner  in  an  orderly 
manner  such  things  as  are  most  likely  to  produce  some 
useful  effects,  according  to  the  best  survey  you  can  take 
of  all  the  concurring  causes  and  circumstances. 

5.  Ob>erve  carefully  all  the  events  which  happen 
either  by  an  occasional  concurrence  of  various  causes, 
or  by  the  industrious  applications  of  knowing  nien:  and 
when  you  see  any  happy  effect  certainly  produced, 
and  often  repeated,  treasure  it  up,  together  with  the 
known  causes  of  it,  amongst  your  improvements. 

6.  Take  a  just  survey  of  all  the  circumstances  which 
attend  the  operation  of  any  cause  or  causes,  whereby 
any  special  effect  is  produced:  and  find  out  as  far  as  pos- 
sible how  far  any  of  those  circumstances  had  a  tenden- 
cy either  to  obstruct  or  promote  or  change  those  opera- 
tions, and  consequently  how  far  the  effect  might  be  in- 
fluenced by  them. 

In  this  manner  physicians  practise  and  improve  their 
skill.  Tliey  consider  the  various  known  effects  of  par- 
ticular herbs  or  drugs,  they  meditate  what  will  be  the  ef- 
fects of  their  composition,  and  whether  tlie  virtues  of 
the  one  will  exalt  or  dim'nish  the  force  of  the  otlier,  or 
correct  any  of  its  nocent  qualities.  Then  they  observe 
the  native  constitution,  and  the  present  temper  or  cir- 
cumstances of  the  patient,  and  what  is  likely  to  be  the 
effect  of  such  a  medicine  on  such  a  patient.  And  in  all 
unconmion  cases  they  make  wise  and  cautious  experi- 
ments, and  nicely  observe  the  effects  of  particular  com- 
pound medicines  on  ditferent  constitutions  and  in  differ- 
ent diseases,  and  by  these  treasures  of  just  observations 


192  OF  THE  SCIENCES, 

they  grow  up  to  an  honourable  degree  of  skill  in  the 
art  of  healing.  So  the  preacher  considers  the  doctrines 
and  reasons,  the  precepts,  ihe  promises  and  threaten- 
ings  of  the  word  of  God,  and  what  are  the  natural  ef- 
fects of  them  upon  the  mind;  he  considers  wliat  is  the 
natural  tendency  of  such  a  virtue,  or  such  a  vice;  he  is 
well  apprized  that  t[ie  representation  of  some  of  these 
things  may  convince  the  understanding,  some  may  ter- 
rify the  conscience,  some  may  allure  the  slothful,  and 
some  encourage  the  desponding  mind;  he  observes  the 
temper  of  his  liearers,  or  of  any  particular  person  that 
converses  with  him  about  things  sacred,  and  he  judges 
what  will  be  the  et^ects  of  each  representation  on  such 
persons;  he  reviews  and  recollects  what  have  been  the 
effects  of  some  special  parts  and  methods  of  his  minis- 
try; and  by  a  careful  survey  of  all  tliese  he  attains  great- 
er degrees  of  skill  in  his  sacred  employment. 

Note — In  all  these  cases  we  must  distinguish  those 
causes  and  effects  which  are  naturally  and  necessarily 
connected  with  each  other,  from  those  which  have  only 
an  accidental  or  contiiioent  connexion.  Even  in  those 
causes  where  the  effect  is  but  continofent,  we  may  some- 
times arrive  at  a  very  high  degree  of  probability;  yet  we 
cannot  arrive  at  such  certainty  as  where  the  causes  ope- 
rate by  an  evident  and  natural  necessity,  and  t!ie  ef- 
fects necessarily  follow  the  operation. — See  more  on 
this  subject,  Logic,  Part  ii.  chap.  v.  sect.  7. 


CHAPTER  XX. 


OF  THE  SCIENCES,  AND  THEIR    USE    IN    PARTICULAR    PRO- 
FESSIONS. 

I.  The  best  way  to  learn  any  science  is  to  begin  with 
a  regular  system,  or  a  short  and  plain  scheme  of  tliat 
science,  well  drawn  up  into  a  narrow  compass,  omittinrr 
the  deeper  and  more  abstruse  parts  of  it.  and  that  also 
under  the  conduct  and  instruction  of  so.-ne  skilful  teach- 


AND  THEIR  USE.  193 

er.  Systems  are  necessary  to  give  an  entire  and  com- 
prehensive view  of  the  several  parts  of  any  science, 
which  may  have  a  mutual  influence  toward  the  explica- 
tion or  proof  of  each  other:  whereas  if  a  man  deals  always 
and  only  in  essays  and  discourses  on  particular  parts  of 
a  science,  he  will  never  obtain  a  distinct  and  just  idea 
of  the  whole,  and  may  perhaps  omit  some  important 
part  of  it,  after  seven  years  reading 'of  such  occasional 
discourses. 

For  this  reason  young  students  should  apply  them- 
selves to  their  systems  much  more  than  pamphlets.  That 
man  is  never  so  fit  to  judge  of  particular  subjects  relating 
to  any  science,  who  has  never  taken  a  survey  of  the 
whole. 

It  is  the  remark  of  an  ingenious  writer,  should  a  bar- 
barous Indian,  who  had  never  seen  a  palace  or  a  ship, 
view  tlieir  separate  and  disjointed  parts,  and  observe  the 
pillars,  doors,  windows,  cornices,  and  turrets  of  the  one, 
or  the  prow  and  stern,  tjje  ribs  and  masts,  the  ropes  and 
shrouds,  the  sails  and  tackle  of  the  other,  he  would  be 
able  to  form  but  a  very  lame  and  dark  idea  of  eillier  of 
those  excellent  and  useful  inventions.  In  like  manner, 
those  who  contemplate  only  the  fragments  or  pieces 
broken  off  from  any  science,  dispersed  in  short  uncon- 
nected discourses,  and  do  not  discern  their  relation  to 
each  other,  and  how  they  may  be  adapted,  and  by  their 
union  procure  the  delightful  symmetry  of  a  regular 
scheme,  can  never  survey  an  entire  body  of  truth,  but 
must  always  view  it  as  deformed  and  dismembered; 
while  their  ideas,  which  must  be  ever  indistinct  and  of- 
ten repugnant,  will  lie  in  the  brain  unsorted,  and  thrown 
together  witiiout  order  or  coherence:  such  is  the  knowl- 
edge of  those  men  who  live  upon  the  scraps  of  the  sci- 
ences. 

A  youth  of  genius  and  lively  imagination,  of  an  ac- 
tive and  forward  spirit,  may  form  within  himself  some 
alluring  scenes  and  pleasing  schemes  in  the  beginning 
of  a  science,  which  are  utterly  inconsistent  with  some 
of  the  necessary  and  substantial  parts  of  it  wliich  ap- 
pear in  the  middle  or  the  end.  And  if  he  never  read 
and  pass  through  the  whole,  he  takes  up  and  is  satisfied 
17 


194  OF  THE  SCIENCES, 

with  his  own  hasty  pleasing  schemes,  and  treasures 
these  errors  up  amongst  his  sohd  acquisitions;  where- 
as his  own  labour  and  study  farther  pursued  would  have 
shown  him  his  early  mistakes,  and  cured  him  of  his 
self-flattering  delusions. 

Hence  it  comes  to  pass  that  we  have  so  many  half- 
scholars  nowadays,  and  there  is  so  nmch  confusion  and 
inconsistency  in  the  notions  and  opinions  of  some  per- 
sons, because  they  devote  their  hours  of  study  entirely 
to  short  essays  and  pamphlets,  and  cast  contempt  upon 
systems  under  a  pretence  of  greater  politeness;  whereas 
the  true  reason  of  this  contempt  of  systematical  learn- 
ing is  mere  laziness  and  want  of  judgment. 

II.  After  we  are  grown  well  acquainted  with  a  short 
system  or  compendium  of  a  science,  which  is  written  in 
the  plainest  and  most  simple  manner,  it  is  then  proper 
to  read  a  large  regular  treatise  on  that  subject,  if  we 
design  a  complete  knowledge  and  cultivation  of  it:  and 
either  while  we  are  reading  this  larger  system,  or  after 
we  have  done  it,  then  occasional  discourses  and  essays 
upon  the  particular  subjects  and  parts  of  that  science 
may  be  read  with  the  greatest  profit:  for  in  these  essays 
we  may  often  find  very  considerable  corrections  and  im- 
provements of  what  these  compends,  or  even  the  larger 
systems  may  have  taught  us,  mingled  witli  some  mis- 
takes. 

And  these  corrections  or  improvements  should  be  as 
remarks  adjoined  by  way  of  note  or  commentary  in 
their  proper  places,  and  superadded  to  the  regular  trea- 
tise we  have  read.  Then  a  studious  and  judicious  re- 
view of  the  whole  will  give  us  a  tolerable  acquaintance 
witli  that  science. 

III.  It  is  a  great  happiness  to  have  such  a  tutor,  or 
such  friends  and  companions  at  hand,  who  are  able  to 
inform  us  what  are  the  best  books  written  on  any  science, 
or  any  special  part  of  it.  For  want  of  this  advantage 
many  a  man  has  wasted  his  time  in  reading  over  per- 
haps some  *i  lole  volumes,  and  learnt  little  more  by  it 
than  to  know  that  those  volumes  were  not  worth  his 
reading. 

IV.  As  for  the  languages,  they  are  certainly  best 


I 


AND  THEIR  USE.  196 

learned  in  the  younger  years  of  life.  The  memory  is 
then  most  empty  and  unfurnished,  and  ready  to  receive 
new  ideas  continually.  We  find  that  children,  in  two 
years  time  after  they  are  born,  learn  to  speak  their  na 
tive  tongue. 

V.  The  mere  abstracted  sciences,  which  depend  more 
upon  the  understanding  and  judgment,  and  which  deal 
much  in  abstracted  ideas,  should  not  be  imposed  upon 
children  too  soon;  such  are  logic,  metaphysics,  ethics, 
politics,  er  the  depths  and  difficulties  of  grammar  and 
criticism.  Yet  it  must  be  confessed  the  first  rudiments 
of  grammar  are  necessary,  or  at  least  very  convenient 
to  be  known  when  a  youth  learns  a  new  language;  and 
some  general  easy  principles  and  rules  of  morality  and 
divinity  are  needful  in  order  to  teach  a  child  his  duty  to 
God  and  man;  but  to  enter  fir  into  abstracted  reasonings 
on  these  subjects  is  beyond  the  capacity  of  children. 

VI.  There  are  several  of  the  sciences  that  will  more 
agreeably  employ  our  younger  years,  and  the  general 
parts  of  them  may  be  easily  taken  in  by  boys.  The  first . 
principles  and  easier  practices  of  arithmetic,  geometry, 
plain  trigonometry,  measuring  heights,  depths,  lengths, 
distances,  &c.  tlie  rudiments  of  geometry  and  astronomy, 
togetlier  with  something  of  mechanics,  may  be  easily 
conveyed  into  the  minds  -f  acute  young  persons,  from 
nine  or  ten  years  old  and  upward.  These  studies  may 
be  entertaining  and  useful  to  young  ladies  as  well  as  to 
gentlemen,  and  to  all  those  who  are  bred  up  to  the 
learned  professions.  The  fiiir  sex  may  intermingle  those 
with  the  operations  of  the  needle  and  the  knowledge  of 
domestic  life.  Boys  may  be  taught  to  join  them  with 
their  rudiments  of  grammar,  and  tlieir  labour  in  the  lan- 
guages. And  even  those  who  never  learn  any  language 
but  their  mother-tongue,  may  be  taught  these  sciences 
with  lasting  benefit  in  early  days. 

That  this  may  be  done  with  ease  and  advantage,  take 
these  three  reasons: 

1.  Because  they  depend  so  much  upon  schemes  and 
numbers,  images,  lines,  and  fingers,  and  sensible  tilings, 
that  the  imaginatio^i  or  fancy   will  greatly  assist  the 


196  OP  THE  SCIENCES, 

understanding,  and  render  the  knowledge  of  them  much 
more  easy. 

2.  These  studies  are  so  pleasant  that  they  will  make 
the  dry  labour  of  learning  words,  phrases,  and  languages 
more  tolerable  to  boys  in  a  Latin  school  by  this  most 
agreeable  mixture.  The  employment  of  youth  in  these 
studies  will  tempt  them  to  neglect  many  of  the  foolish 
plays  of  childhood,  and  they  will  find  sweeter  entertain- 
ment for  themselves  and  their  leisure  hours  by  a  culti- 
vation of  these  pretty  pieces  of  alluring  knowledge. 

3.  The  knowledge  of  these  parts  of  science  are  both 
easy  and  worthy  to  be  retained  in  the  memory  by  all 
children  when  they  come  to  manly  years,  for  they  are 
useful  through  all  the  parts  of  human  life:  they  tend  to 
enlarge  the  understanding  early,  and  to  give  a  various 
acquaintance  witli  useful  subjects  betimes.  And  surely 
it  is  best,  as  far  as  possible,  to  train  up  children  in  the 
knowledge  of  those  things  which  they  should  never  for- 
get rather  than  to  let  them  waste  years  of  life  in  trifles, 
or  in  hard  words  which  are  not  worth  remembering. 

And  here  by  the  way  I  cannot  but  wonder  that  any 
author  in  our  age  should  have  attempted  to  teach  any 
of  the  exploded  physics  of  Descartes,  or  the  nobler  in- 
ventions of  Sir  Isaac  Newton  in  his  hypothesis  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  and  their  motions,  in  his  doctrine  of 
light  and  colours,  and  other  parts  of  his  physiology,  or 
to  instruct  children  in  the  knowledge  of  the  theory  of 
the  heavens,  earth  and  planets,  without  any  figures  or 
diagrams.  Is  it  possible  to  give  a  boy  or  a  young  lady 
the  clear,  distinct,  and  proper  apprehensions  of  these 
things,  witliout  lines  and  figures  to  describe  them?  Does 
not  ineir  understanding  want  the  aid  of  fancy  and  im- 
ages to  convey  stronger  and  juster  ideas  of  them  to  the 
inmost  souP  Or  do  they  imagine  that  youth  can  pene- 
trate into  all  these  beauties  and  artifices  of  nature,  with- 
out those  helps  which  persons  of  maturer  age  find  neces- 
sary for  that  purpose?  I  would  not  willingly  name  the 
books,  because  some  of  the  writers  are  said  to  be  gentle- 
men of  excellent  acquirements. 

VII.  After  we  have  first  learnt  and  gone  through  any 
of  those  arts  and  sciences  which  are  to  be  explained  by 


I 


AND  THEIR  USE.  197 

diagrams,  figures,  and  schemes,  such  as  geometry,  ge- 
ography, astronomy,  optics,  mechanics,  &c.  we  may  best 
preserve  them  in  memory,  by  having  those  schemes  and 
figures  in  large  sheets  of  paper  hanging  always  before 
the  eye  in  closets,  parlours,  halls,  chambers,  entries, 
staircases,  &c.  Thus  the  learned  images  will  be  per- 
petually impressed  upon  the  brain,  and  will  keep  the 
learning  that  depends  upon  them  alive  and  fresh  in  the 
mind  through  the  growing  years  of  life:  the  mere  dia- 
grams and  figures  will  ever  recall  to  our  thoughts  those 
theorems,  problems,  and  corollaries,  which  have  been 
demonstrated  by  them. 

It  is  incredible  how  much  geography  may  be  learnt 
this  way  by  the  two  terrestrial  hemispheres,  and  by  par- 
ticular maps  and  charts  of  the  coast  and  countries  of  the 
earth  happily  disposed  round  about  us.  Thus  we  may 
learn  also  the  constellations,  by  just  projections  of  the 
celestial  sphere,  hung  up  in  the  same  manner.  And  I 
must  confess,  for  the  bulk  of  learners  of  astronomy,  I 
like  tliat  projection  of  the  stars  best  which  includes  in 
it  all  the  stars  of  our  horizon,  and  therefore  it  reaches  to 
the  thirty-eighth  and  half  degree  of  southern  latitude, 
thougli  its  centre  is  the  north  pole.  This  gives  us  a 
better  view  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  as  they  appear  every 
night  to  us,  and  it  may  be  made  use  of  with  a  little  in- 
struction, and  with  ease,  to  serve  for  a  nocturnal,  and 
show  the  true  hour  of  the  night. 

But  remember,  if  there  be  any  colouring  upon  these 
maps  or  projections,  it  should  be  laid  on  so  thin  as  not 
to  obscure  or  conceal  any  part  of  the  lines,  figures,  or 
letters;  whereas  most  times  they  are  daubed  so  thick 
with  gay  and  glaring  colours,  and  hung  up  so  high 
above  tlie  reach  of  the  eye  that  should  survey  and  read 
them  as  though  their  only  design  were  to  make  a  gaudy 
show  upon  the  wail,  and  they  hung  there  merely  to 
cover  the  naked  plaster  or  wainscot. 

Those  sciences  which  may  be  drawn  out  into  tables 
may  be  also  thus  hung  up  and  disposed  in  proper  places, 
such  as  brief  abstracts  of  history,  chronology,  &c,;  and 
indeed  the  schemes  of  any  of  the  arts  or  sciences  may 
be  analvzed  in  a  sort  of  skeleton,  and  represented  upon 
"  17* 


198  OF  THE  SCIENCES, 

tables,  with  various  dependencies  and  connexions  of 
their  several  parts  and  subjects  that  belong  to  them. 
Mr.  Solomon  Lowe  has  happily  thrown  the  grammar 
of  several  languages  into  such  tables;  and  a  frequent  re- 
view of  these  abstracts  and  epitomes  would  tend  much 
to  imprint  them  on  the  bram,  when  lliey  have  been  once 
well  learned;  this  would  keep  those  learned  traces  always 
open,  and  assist  the  weakness  of  a  labouring  memory. 
In  this  manner  may  a  sclieme  of  the  Scripture  history 
be  drawn  out,  and  perpetuate  those  ideas  in  the  mind 
with  which  our  daily  reading  furnishes  us. 

VIII.  Every  man  who  pretends  to  the  character  of 
a  scholar  should  attain  some  general  and  superficial 
ideas  of  most  or  all  the  sciences:  for  there  is  a  certain 
connexion  anjong  the  various  parts  of  human  knowledge, 
so  that  some  notions  borrowed  from  any  one  science  may 
assist  our  acquaintance  with  any  other,  either  by  way 
of  explication,  illustration,  or  proof:  though  there  are  some 
sciences  conjoined  by  a  mucli  nearer  affinity  than  others. 

IX.  Let  those  parts  of  every  .science  be  chiefly  studied 
at  first,  and  reviewed  afterwards,  which  have  a  more 
direct  tendency  to  assist  our  proper  profession,  as  men, 
or  our  general  profession,  as  Christians,  always  observ- 
ing what  we  have  ourselves  found  most  necessary  and 
useful  to  us  in  the  course  of  our  lives.  Age  and  ex- 
perience will  teach  us  to  judge  whicli  of  the  sciences, 
and  which  parts  of  them,  have  been  of  greatest  use  and 
are  most  valuable;  but  in  younger  years  of  life  we  are 
not  sufficient  judges  of  this  matter,  and  therefore  should 
seek  advice  from  others  who  are  elder. 

X.  There  are  three  learned  professions  among  us,  viz. 
divinity,  law,  and  medicine.  Though  every  man  who 
pretends  to  be  a  scholar  or  a  gentleman  should  so  far 
acquaint  himself  with  a  superficial  scheme  of  all  the 
sciences,  as  not  to  stand  amazed  like  a  mere  stranger  at 
the  mention  of  the  common  subjects  that  belong  to  them; 
3'et  there  is  no  necessity  for  every  man  of  learning  to 
enter  into  their  difficulties  and  deep  recesses,  nor  to 
climb  the  heights  to  which  some  others  have  arrived. 
The  knowledge  of  them  in  a  proper  measure  may  be 
happily  useful  to  every  profession,  not  onl^'  because  all 


AND  THEIR  USE.  199 

arts  and  sciences  have  a  sort  of  communion  and  connex- 
ion with  each  other,  but  it  is  an  angelic  pleasure  to  grow 
in  knowledge,  it  is  a  matter  of  honour  and  esteem,  and 
renders  a  man  more  agreeable  and  acceptable  in  every 
company. 

But  let  us  survey  several  of  them  more  particularly, 
with  regard  to  the  learned  professions;  and  first,  of  the 
mathematics. 

XI.  Though  I  have  so  often  commended  mathemati- 
cal studies,  and  particularly  the  speculations  of  arithme- 
tic and  geometry,  as  a  means  to  fix  a  wavering  mind, 
to  beget  a  habit  of  attention,  and  to  improve  the  faculty 
of  reason;  yet  I  would  by  no  means  be  understood  to 
recommend  to  all  a  pursuit  of  these  sciences,  to  those 
extensive  lengths  to  which  the  moderns  have  advanced 
them.  Tliis  is  neither  necessary  nor  proper  for  any 
students,  but  those  few  who  shall  make  tliose  studies 
their  chief  profession  and  business  of  life,  or  those  gen- 
tlemen whose  capacities  and  turn  of  mind  are  suited  to 
these  studies,  and  have  all  manner  of  advantage  to  im- 
prove in  them 

The  general  principles  of  arithmetic,  algebra,  geome- 
try, and  trigonometry,  of  geography,  of  modern  as- 
tronomy, mechanics,  statics,  and  optics,  have  their 
valuable  and  excellent  uses,  not  only  for  the  exercise  and 
improvement  of  the  faculties  of  the  mind,  but  the  sub- 
jects themselves  are  very  well  worth  our  knowledge  in 
a  moderate  degree,  and  are  often  made  of  admirable 
service  in  human  life.  So  much  of  these  subjects  as 
Dr.  Wells  has  given  us  in  his  three  volumes,  entitled  The 
Young  Gentleman's  Mathematics,  is  richly  sufficient  for 
the  greatest  part  of  scholars  or  gentlemen;  tiiough  per- 
haps there  may  be  some  single  treatises,  at  least  on  some 
of  these  subjects,  wiiich  may  be  better  written  and  more 
useful  to  be  perused  than  those  of  that  learned  author. 

But  a  penetration  into  the  abstruse  difficulties  and 
depths  of  modern  algebra  and  fluxions,  the  various  me- 
thods of  quadratures,  the  mensuration  of  all  manner  of 
curves,  and  their  mutual  transformation,  and  twenty 
other  tilings  tliat  some  modern  mathematicians  deal  in, 
are  not  worth  the  labour  of  those  who  design  either  of 


200  OF    THE    SCIENCES, 

the  three  learned  professions,  divinity,  law,  or  physic,  as 
the  business  of  life.  This  is  the  sentence  of  a  considera- 
ble man,  viz.  Dr.  George  Cheyne,  who  was  a  very  good 
proficient  and  writer  on  these  subjects:  he  affirms  tliat 
they  are  but  barren  and  airy  studies,  for  a  man  entirely 
to  live  upon,  and  that  for  a  man  to  indulge  and  riot  in 
these  exquisitely  bewitching  contemplations  is  only  pro- 
per for  public  professors,  or  for  gentlemen  of  estates, 
who  have  a  strong  propensity  this  way,  and  a  genius  fit 
to  cultivate  them. 

But,  says  lie,  to  own  a  great  but  grievous  truth,  though 
they  may  quicken  and  sharpen  the  invention;  strengthen 
and  extend  the  imagination,  improve  and  refine  the 
reasoning  faculty,  and  are  of  use  botli  in  the  necessary 
and  the  luxurious  refinement  of  mechanical  arts;  yet 
having  no  tendency  to  rectify  tlie  will,  to  sweeten  the 
temper,  or  mend  the  heart,  tliey  often  leave  a  stifi'ness, 
a  positiveness,  a  sufficiency  on  weak  minds,  which  is 
much  more  pernicious  to  society,  and  to  the  interests  of 
the  great  end  of  our  being,  than  all  their  advantages  can 
recompense.  He  adds  further,  concerninof  the  launch- 
ing into  the  depths  of  these  studies,  that  they  are  apt 
to  beget  a  secret  and  refined  pride,  an  overweening 
and  overbearing  vanity,  the  xnosi  opposite  temper  to  the 
true  spirit  of  the  Gospel.  This  tempts  them  to  presume 
on  a  kind  of  omniscience  in  respect  to  their  fellow  crea- 
tures, who  have  not  risen  to  their  elevation;  nor  are 
they  fit  to  be  trusted  in  the  hands  of  any  but  tliose  wlio 
have  acquired  an  humble  heart,  a  lowly  spirit,  and  a 
sober  and  teachable  temper.  See  Dr.  Cheyne's  preface 
to  his  Essay  on  Health  and  Long  Life. 

Xn.  Some  of  tlie  practical  parts  of  geometry,  as- 
tronomy, dialling,  optics,  statics,  mechanics,  &c.  may 
be  agreeable  entertainments  and  amusements  to  students 
in  every  profession,  at  leisure  hours,  if  they  enjoy  such 
circumstances  of  life  as  to  furnish  them  with  conveni- 
ences for  this  sort  of  improvement:  but  let  them  take 
great  care  lest  they  entrench  upon  more  necessary  em- 
ployments, and  so  fall  under  the  charge  and  censure  of 
wasted  time. 

Yet  I  cannot  help  making  this  observation,  that  where 


AND  THEIR  USE.  201 

gtudents,  or  indeed  any  young  gentlemen  have,  in  theii> 
early  years,  made  themselves  masters  of  a  variety  of  ele- 
gant problems  in  the  mathematical  circle  of  knowledge, 
and  gained  the  most  easy,  neat,  and  entertaining  ex- 
periments in  natural  philosopliy,  with  some  short  and 
agreeable  speculations  or  practices,  in  any  other  of  the 
arts  and  sciences,  they  have  hereby  laid  a  foundation  for 
the  esteem  and  love  of  mankind  among  those  with  whom 
they  converse,  in  higher  or  lower  ranks  of  life;  they  have 
been  often  guarded  by  this  means  from  the  temptation 
of  innocent  pleasures,  and  have  secured  both  tlieir  own 
hours  and  the  hours  of  tlieir  companions  from  running 
to  waste  in  sauntering  and  tritles,  and  from  a  thousand 
impertinences  in  silly  dialogues.  Gaming  and  drinking, 
and  many  criminal  and  foolish  scenes  of  talk  and  action, 
have  been  prevented  by  these  innocent  and  improving 
elegancies  of  knowledge. 

XIII.  History  is  a  necessary  study  in  the  supreme 
place  for  gentlemen  who  deal  in  politics.  The  govern- 
ment of  nations,  and  distressful  and  desolating  events 
which  have  in  all  ages  attended  the  mistakes  of  politicians, 
should  be  ever  present  on  their  minds,  to  warn  them  to 
avoid  tiie  like  conduct.  Geography  and  clironology, 
which  precisely  inform  us  of  the  place  or  time  where 
such  transactions  or  events  happened,  are  the  eyes  of 
history,  and  of  absolute  necessity  in  some  measure  to 
attend  it. 

But  history,  as  far  as  relates  to  the  affairs  of  the  Bible, 
is  as  necessary  to  divines  as  to  gentlemen  of  any  profes- 
sion. It  helps  us  to  reconcile  many  ditticulties  in  Scrip- 
ture, and  demonstrates  a  divine  Providence.  Dr.  Pri- 
deaux's  Connexions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  is 
an  excellent  treatise  of  tliis  kind. 

XIV.  Among  tlie  smaller  histories,  biography,  or  the 
memoirs  ofthe  lives  ofgreat  and  good  men,  lias  a  high  rank 
in  my  esteem,  as  worthy  of  the  perusal  of  every  person 
who  devotes  himself  to  the  study  of  divinity.  Therein  we 
frequently  find  our  holy  religion  reduced  to  practice, 
and  many  parts  of  Christianity  shining  with  a  trancen- 
dent  and  exemplary  light.  We  learn  there  how  deeply 
sensible  great  and  good  men  have  been  of  the  ruins  of 


202  OF  THE  SCIENCES, 

human  nature  by  the  first  apostasy  from  God,  and  how 
they  have  toiled  and  laboured,  and  turned  tlieinselves 
on  all  sides,  to  seek  a  recovery  in  vain,  till  they  have 
found  the  Gospel  of  Christ  an  all-sufficient  relief.  We 
are  there  furnished  with  etfectual  and  unanswerable  evi- 
dences that  the  religion  of  Jesus,  with  all  its  self-denials, 
virtues,  and  devotions,  is  a  very  practicable  thing,  since 
it  has  been  carried  to  sucli  a  degree  of  honour  by  some 
wise  and  holy  men.  We  have  been  there  assured  that 
the  pleasures  and  satisfactions  of  the  Christian  life,  in 
its  present  practice  and  future  hopes,  are  not  mere  rap- 
tures of  fancy  and  enthusiasm,  when  some  of  the  strict- 
est professors  of  reason  have  added  the  sanction  of  their 
testimony. 

In  short,  the  lives  or  memoirs  of  persons  of  piety,  well 
written,  have  been  of  infinite  and  unspeakable  advantage 
to  the  disciples  and  professors  of  Cliristianity,  and  have 
given  us  admirable  instances  and  rules  how  to  resist 
every  temptation  of  a  soothing  o*:  frowning  world,  how  to 
practice  important  and  difficult  duties,  how  to  love  God 
above  all,  and  to  love  our  neighbour  as  ourselves,  to  live 
by  the  faith  of  the  Son  of  God,  and  to  die  in  the  same  faith, 
in  sure  and  certain  hope  of  a  resurrection  to  eternal  life. 

XV.  Remember  that  logic  and  ontology  or  metaphys- 
ics, are  necessary  sciences,  though  they  have  been  greatly 
abused  by  scliolastic  writers,  who  have  professed  to  teach 
them  in  former  ages.  Not  only  all  students,  whether 
they  design  the  profession  of  theology,  law,  or  physic, 
but  all  gentlemen  should  at  least  acquire  a  superficial 
knowledge  of  them.  Tlie  introduction  of  so  many  sub- 
tleties, nice  distinctions,  and  insignificant  terms,  without 
clear  ideas,  has  brought  a  great  part  of  the  logic  and 
metaphysics  of  the  schools  into  just  contempt.  Their 
logic  has  appeared  the  mere  art  of  wrangling,  and  their 
metaphysics  the  skill  of  splitting  a  hair,  of  distinguish- 
ing without  a  ditFerence,  and  of  putting  long  hard  names 
upon  common  tilings,  and  sometimes  upon  a  confused 
jumble  of  things  which  have  no  clear  ideas  belonging  to 
them. 

It  is  certain  that  an  unknown  heap  of  trifles  and  im- 
pertinences have  been  intermingled  with  these  useful 


AND  THEIR  USE.  203 

parts  of  learning,  upon  which  account  many  persons  in 
this  pohte  age  have  made  it  a  part  of  their  breeding  to 
throw  a  jest  upon  them;  and  to  rally  them  well  has  been 
esteemed  a  more  valuable  talent  than  to  understand 
them. 

But  this  is  running  into  wide  extremes,  nor  ought 
these  parts  of  science  to  be  abandoned  by  the  wise,  be- 
cause some  writers  of  former  ages  have  played  the  fool 
with  them.  True  logic  teaches  us  to  use  our  reason  well, 
and  brings  a  light  into  the  understanding:  true  meta- 
physics or  ontology  casts  a  light  upon  all  the  objects  of 
thought  and  meditation,  by  ranging  every  being,  with 
all  the  absolute  and  relative  perfections  and  properties, 
modes  and  attendants  of  it,  in  proper  rank  and  classes, 
and  thereby  it  discovers  the  various  relations  of  things 
to  each  otlier,  and  what  are  their  general  or  special  dif- 
ferences from  each  other,  wherein  a  great  part  of  liuman 
knowledge  coRsists.  And  by  this  means  it  greatly  con- 
duces to  instruct  us  in  method,  or  the  disposition  of 
every  thing  into  its  proper  rank  and  class  cf  beings, 
attributes,  or  action. 

XVI.  If  I  were  to  say  any  thing  of  natural  philoso- 
phy, I  would  venture  to  lay  down  my  sentiments  thus: 

I  think  it  must  needs  be  very  useful  to  a  divine  to 
understand  something  of  natural  science.  The  mere 
natural  history  of  birds,  beasts,  and  fishes,  of  insects, 
trees,  and  plants,  as  well  as  of  meteors,  such  as  clouds, 
thunder,  lightnings,  snow,  hail,  frost,  &c.  in  all  their 
common  or  uncommon  appearances,  may  be  of  consid- 
erable use  to  one  who  studies  divinity,  to  give  him  wi- 
der and  more  delightful  views  of  the  works  of  God, 
and  to  furnish  him  with  lively  and  happy  images  and 
metaphors  drawn  from  the  large  volume  of  nature,  to 
display  and  represent  the  things  of  God  and  religion  in 
the  most  beautiful  and  affecting  colours. 

And  if  tlie  mere  history  of  these  things  be  useful  for 
this  purpose,  surely  it  will  be  of  further  advantage  to  be 
led  into  the  reasons,  causes,  and  effects  of  these  natural 
objects  and  appearances,  and  to  know  the  established 
laws  of  nature,  matter,  and  motion,  whereby  the  great 


204  OF  THE  SCIENCES, 

God  carries  on  his  extensive  works  of  providence  from 
the  creation  to  this  day. 

I  confess  tlie  old  Aristotelian  scheme  of  this  science 
will  teach  us  very  little  that  is  worth  knowing  about 
these  matters;  but  the  later  writers,  who  have  explained 
nature  and  its  operations  in  a  more  sensible  and  geo- 
metrical manner,  are  well  worth  the  moderate  study  of 
a  divine;  especially  those  who  have  followed  the  princi- 
ples of  that  wonder  of  our  age  and  nation,  Sir  Isaac 
Newton.  Tiiere  is  much  pleasure  and  entertainment 
as  well  as  real  profit  to  be  derived  from  those  admirable 
improvements  which  have  been  advanced  in  natural 
philosophy  in  late  years,  by  the  assistance  of  mathe- 
matical learning,  as  well  as  from  the  multitude  of  ex- 
periments which  have  been  made  and  are  still  making 
in  natural  subjects. 

XVII.  This  is  a  science  which  indeed  eminently  be- 
longs to  the  physician:  he  ought  to  know  all  the  parts 
of  human  nature,  what  are  the  sound  and  healthy  func- 
tions of  an  animal  body,  and  what  are  the  distempers 
and  dangers  which  attend  it;  he  should  also  be  furnish- 
ed with  a  large  knowledge  of  plants  and  animals,  and 
every  thing  which  makes  up  the  materia  medica,  or  the 
ingredients  of  which  medicines  are  made;  and  many 
other  things  in  natural  philosophy  are  subservient  to  his 
profession,  as  well  as  the  kindred  art  of  surgery. 

XVIII.  Questions  about  the  powers  and  operations 
of  nature  may  also  sometimes  come  into  the  lawyer's 
cognizance,  especially  such  as  relate  to  assaults,  wounds, 
murders,  &c.  I  remember  I  have  read  a  trial  of  a  man 
for  murder  by  drowning,  wherein  the  judge  on  the 
bench  heard  several  arguments  concerning  the  lungs 
being  filled  or  not  filled  with  water,  by  inspiration  or 
expiration,  &c.;  to  all  which  he  professed  iiimself  so 
much  a  stranger,  as  did  not  do  him  any  great  honour 
in  public. 

XIX.  But  I  think  no  divine,  who  can  obtain  it,  stiould 
be  utterly  destitute  of  this  knowledge.  By  the  assistance 
of  this  study  he  will  be  better  able  to  survey  the  various 
monuments  of  creating  wisdom  in  the  heavens,  the 
earth,  the  seas,  with  wonder  and  worship:  and  by  the 


AND  THEIR  USE.  205 

use  of  a  moderate  skill  in  this  science,  he  may  commu- 
nicate so  much  of  the  astonishing  works  of  God  in  the 
formation  and  government  of  this  visible  world,  and  so 
far  instruct  many  of  his  hearers,  as  may  assist  the  trans- 
fusion of  the  same  ideas  nito  their  minds,  and  raise 
them  to  the  same  delightful  exercises  of  devotion.  O 
Lord,  how  manifold  are  thy  works!  in  wisdom  hast  thou 
made  them  all!  They  are  sought  out  by  all  that  have 
pleasure  in  them. 

Besides,  it  is  worthy  of  the  notice  of  every  student 
in  theology,  that  he  ought  to  have  some  acquaintance 
with  the  principles  of  nature,  that  he  may  judge  a  little 
how  far  they  will  go;  so  that  he  may  not  be  imposed 
upon  to  take  every  strange  appearance  in  nature  for  a 
miracle,  that  he  may  reason  the  clearer  upon  the  sub- 
ject, that  he  may  better  confirm  the  miracles  of  Moses 
and  of  Christ,  nor  yield  up  his  faith  to  any  pretences  of 
prodigy  and  wonder,  which  are  either  the  occasional  and 
uncommon  operations  of  the  elements,  or  the  crafty 
sleights  of  men  well  skilled  in  philosophy  and  mechan- 
ical operations  to  delude  the  simple. 

XX.  The  knowledge  also  of  animal  nature,  and  of 
the  rational  soul  of  man,  and  the  mutual  influence  of 
these  two  ingredients  of  our  composition  upon  each 
other,  is  worthy  the  study  of  a  divine.  It  is  of  great 
importance  to  persons  of  this  character  and  office  to 
judge  liow  far  the  animal  powers  have  influence  upon 
such  and  such  particular  appearances  and  practices  of 
mankind;  how  far  the  appetites  or  passions  of  human 
nature  are  owing  to  the  flesh  and  blood,  or  to  the  mind; 
how  far  they  may  be  moderated,  and  how  far  they  ought 
to  be  subdued;  and  what  are  the  happiest  methods  of 
obtaining  these  ends.  By  this  science  also  we  ma}'  be 
better  informed  how  far  these  passions  or  appetites  are 
lawful,  and  how  far  they  are  criminal,  by  considering 
how  far  they  are  subject  to  the  power  of  the  will,  and 
how  far  they  may  be  changed  and  corrected  by  our 
watchfulness,  care,  and  diligence. 

It  comes  also  very  properly  under  the  cognizance  of 
this  profession  to  be  able  in  some  measure  to  determine 
questions  which  may  arise  relating  to  real  inspiration  oi 
18  « 


206  OF  THE  SCIENCES, 

prophecy,  to  wild  enthusiasm,  to  fits  of  a  convulsive 
kind,  to  melancholy  or  frenzy,  &c.  and  what  directions 
are  proper  to  be  given  concerning  any  appearances  of 
this  nature. 

XXI.  Next  to  the  knowledge  of  natural  things,  and 
acquaintance  with  the  human  nature  and  constitution, 
which  is  made  up  of  soul  and  body,  I  think  that  natu- 
ral religion  properly  takes  its  place.  This  consists  of 
these  two  i)arts,  viz.  1.  The  speculative  or  contempla- 
tive, which  is  the  knowledge  of  God  in  his  various  per- 
fections and  in  his  relations  to  his  rational  creatures,  so 
far  as  may  he  known  Ijy  the  light  of  nature,  which  Iiereto- 
fore  used  to  be  called  the  second  part  of  metaphysics.  It 
includes  also,  2.  Tliat  whicli  is  practical  or  active,  that  is, 
the  knowledge  of  the  several  duties  which  arise  from  our 
relation  to  God,  and  our  relation  to  our  fellow  creatures, 
and  our  proper  conduct  and  government  of  ourselves;  this 
has  been  used  to  be  called  ethics,  or  moral  philosophy. 

XXII.  The  knowledge  of  these  things  is  proper  for 
all  men  of  learning;  not  only  because  it  teaches  them 
to  obtain  juster  views  of  the  several  parts  of  revealed 
religion  and  of  Christianity,  which  are  built  upon  them, 
but  because  every  brancli  of  natural  religion,  and  of 
moral  duty,  is  contained  and  necessarily  implied  in  all 
the  revealed  religions  that  ever  God  prescribed  to  the 
world.  We  may  well  suspect  that  religion  does  not 
come  from  God  which  renounces  any  part  of  natural 
duty. 

Whether  mankind  live  under  the  dispensation  of 
the  patriarchs,  or  of  Moses,  or  the  prophets,  or  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  still  we  are  bound  to  know  the  one 
true  God,  and  to  practise  all  that  adoration  and  rever- 
ence, all  that  love  to  him,  that  faith  in  his  perfections, 
with  that  obedience  and  submission  to  his  will,  which 
natural  religion  requires.  We  are  still  bound  to  exer- 
cise that  justice,  truth,  and  goodness  towards  our  neigh- 
bours, that  restraint  and  moderation  of  our  own  appe- 
tites and  passions,  and  that  regular  behaviour  towards 
ourselves  and  all  our  fellow  creatures  around  us,  wiiich 
moral  philosophy  teaches.  There  is  no  sort  of  revealed 
religion  that  will  dispense  with  these  natural  obligations; 


AND  THEIR  USE.  207 

and  a  happy  acquaintance  with  the  several  appetites, 
inchnations,  and  passions  of  human  nature,  and  the 
best  nietliods  to  rule  and  restrain,  to  direct  and  govern 
them,  are  our  constant  business,  and  ought  to  be  our 
everlasting  study. 

Yet  I  would  lay  down  this  caution,  viz.  That  since 
students  are  instructed  in  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God 
in  their  lectures  on  Cliristianity,  and  since  among  the 
Christian  duties  they  are  also  taught  all  the  moral  dictates 
of  the  light  of  nature,  or  a  complete  scheme  of  ethics, 
there  is  no  absolute  necessity  of  learning  these  two  parts 
of  natural  religion,  as  distinct  sciences,  separate  and  by 
themselves;  but  still  it  is  of  great  importance  for  a  tutor, 
while  he  is  reading  to  his  pupils  these  parts  of  the 
Christian  religion,  to  give  them  notice  how  far  the  light 
of  nature  or  mere  reason  will  instruct  us  in  these  doc- 
trines and  duties,  and  how  far  we  .a  re  obliged  to  divine 
relation  and  Scripture,  for  clearing  up  and  establishing 
the  firm  foundations  of  the  one,  for  affording  us  superior 
motives  and  powers  to  practice  the  other,  for  raising 
them  to  more  exalted  degrees,  and  building  so  glorious 
a  superstructure  upon  them. 

XXII I.  The  study  of  natural  religion,  viz.  the  know- 
ledge of  God  and  the  rules  of  virtue  and  piety,  as  far  as 
they  are  discovered  by  the  light  of  nature,  is  needful  to 
prove  t!ie  truth  of  divine  revelation  or  scripture,  in  the 
most  effectual  mariner:  but  after  the  divine  authority  of 
Scripture  is  established,  that  will  be  a  very  sufficient 
spring  from  whence  the  bulk  of  mankind  may  derive 
t.heir  knowledge  of  divinity,  or  the  Christian  religion, 
in  order  to  their  own  present  faith  and  practice,  and 
their  future  and  eternal  happiness.  In  this  sense  theology 
is  a  science  necessary  for  every  one  that  hopes  for  the 
favour  of  God  and  the  felicity  of  another  world;  and  it 
is  of  infinitely  more  importance  than  any  of  the  arts  and 
sciences  which  belong  to  any  of  the  learned  professions 
here  on  earth. 

XXIV.  Perliaps  it  will  be  thought  necessary  I  should 
say  sometliing  concerning  the  study  of  the  civil  law,  or 
the  law  of  nature  and  nations. 

If  we  would  speak  with  great  justness  and  propriety, 


208  OF  THE  SCIENCES, 

the  civil  law  signifies  the  peculiar  law  of  each  state, 
country,  or  city;  but  what  we  nowadays  usually  mean 
by  the  civil  law,  is  a  body  of  laws  composed  out  of  the 
best  of  the  Roman  and  Grecian  laws,  and  wliich  was  in 
the  main  received  and  observed  through  all  the  Roman 
dominions  for  above  twelve  hundred  years.  The  Romans 
took  the  first  grounds  of  this  law  from  what  they  called 
the  twelve  tables,  wliich  were  the  abridgments  of  the  laws 
of  Solon  at  Athens,  and  of  other  cities  in  Greece,  famous 
for  knowledge  and  wisdom;  to  which  they  added  their 
own  ancient  customs  of  the  city  of  Rome,  and  the  laws 
which  were  made  there.  These  written  laws  were  sub- 
ject to  various  interruptions,  whence  controversies  daily 
arising,  they  were  determined  by  the  judgment  of  the 
learned:  and  these  determinations  were  what  tliey  first 
called  Jus  Civile.  All  this  by  degrees  grew  to  a  vast 
number  of  volumes;  and  therefore  the  emperor  Justinian 
commanded  his  chancellor  Tribonian  to  reduce  them  to 
a  perfect  body,  and  this  is  called  the  body  of  the  civil  law. 

XXV.  But  that  which  is  of  most  importan*  e  for  all 
learned  men  to  be  acquainted  with,  is  tlie  law  of  nature, 
or  the  knowledge  of  right  and  wrong  among  mankind, 
whether  it  be  transacted  between  single  persons  or  com- 
munities, so  far  as  common  reason  and  the  light  of  na- 
ture dictates  and  directs.  This  is  what  Puffendorft' calls 
the  law  of  nature  and  nations,  as  will  appear  if  you  con- 
sult sect.  3,  chap.  iii.  of  that  most  valuable  fulio  he  has 
written  on  the  subject;  which  is  well  worthy  the  study 
of  every  man  of  learning,  particularly  lawyers  and  di- 
vines, together  with  other  treatises  on  the  same  theme. 

If  any  question  proposed  relate  to  riglit  and  property, 
and  justice  between  man  and  man,  in  any  polite  and 
civilized  country,  though  it  must  be  adjudged  chiefly  ac- 
cording to  the  particular  statutes  and  laws  of  that 
country,  yet  the  knowledge  of  the  law  of  nature  will 
very  considerably  assist  the  lawyer  and  the  civil  judge 
in  the  determination  thereof  And  this  knowledge  will 
be  of  great  use  to  divines,  not  only  in  deciding  of  cases 
of  conscience  among  men,  and  answering  any  difficult 
inquiries  which  may  be  proposed  to  them  on  this  sub- 
ject, but  it  will  greatly  assist  them  also  in  their  studies 


AND  THEIR  USE.  SJU9 

relating  to  the  law  of  God,  and  the  performance  or  vio- 
■;iiion  thereof,  the  nature  of  duty  and  sin,  rewards  and 
■nmishmenls. 

XXVI.  I  have  spoken  something  of  the  languages 
before;  but  let  me  here  resume  the  subject,  and  put  in  a 
few  thoughts  about  tliose  studies  which  are  wont  to  be 
called  philological;  such  as  history,  languages,  gi'ammar, 
rhetoric,  poesy,  and  criticism. 

An  acquaintance  with  some  of  the  learned  languages 
at  least  is  necessary  for  all  the  three  learned  professions. 

XXVII.  The  lawyers,  who  have  the  least  need  of 
foreign  tongues,  ought  to  understand  Latin.  During 
many  ages  past,  very  important  matters  in  the  law  were 
always  written  and  managed  in  that  language  by  the 
lawyers,  as  prescriptions  in  medicine  by  the  physicians, 
and  citations  of  the  Scriptures  in  divinity  were  always 
made  in  Latin  by  the  divines.  Prayers  also  were  ordained 
to  be  said  publicly  and  privately  in  the  Roman  tongue; 
paternosters  and  ave-marias  were  half  tiie  devotions  of 
those  ages.  These  cruel  impositions  upon  the  people 
would  not  suffer  thein  to  read  in  their  own  mother 
tongue  what  was  done,  either  to  or  for  their  own  souls, 
their  bodies,  or  their  estates.  I  am  ready  to  suspect  this 
was  all  owing  to  the  craft  and  policy  of  the  priesthood 
and  church  of  Rome,  which  endeavoured  to  aggrandize 
themselves,  and  exalt  their  own  profession  into  a  sove- 
reign tyranny,  and  to  make  mere  slaves  of  the  laity 
among  mankind,  by  keeping  them  in  utter  ignorance, 
darkness,  and  dependence.  And  they  were  willing  to 
compound  the  matter  with  the  physicians  and  the  law- 
yers, and  allow  them  a  small  share  in  this  tyranny  over 
the  populace,  to  maintain  their  own  supreme  dominion 
over  all. 

But  we  thank  God  the  world  is  grown  something 
wiser;  and  of  late  years  the  British  parliament  has  been 
pleased  to  give  relief  from  that  bondage  in  matters  re- 
lating to  tlie  law  also,  as  in  the  age  of  reformation  we 
were  delivered  from  saying  our  prayers  in  Latin,  from 
being  bound  to  read  the  word  of  God  in  a  tongue  un- 
known to  the  people,  and  from  living  in  everlasting 

18* 


210  OF  THE  SCIENCES, 

subjection  to  the  clergy  in  matters  of  this  life  and  the 
life  to  come. 

But  to  return,  there  are  still  so  many  forms  of  pro- 
ceedmg  in  judicature,  and  things  called  by  Latin  names 
in  the  profession  of  the  law,  and  so  many  barbarous  words 
with  Latin  terminations,  that  it  is  necessary  lawyers 
should  understand  this  language.  Some  acquaintance 
also  with  the  old  French  tongue  is  needful  for  the  same 
persons  and  professions,  since  the  tenures  of  Lyttleton, 
which  are  a  sort  of  Bible  to  the  gentlemen  of  the  long 
robe,  were  written  in  that  language:  and  this  tongue 
has  been  interwoven  in  some  forms  of  the  English  law, 
from  the  days  of  William  the  Conqueror,  who  came 
from  Normandy  in  France. 

XXVllL  Physicians  should  be  skilled  in  the  Greek 
as  well  as  in  tlie  Latin,  because  their  great  master  Hip- 
pocrates wrote  in  that  tongue,  and  his  writings  are  still 
of  good  value  and  use.  A  multitude  of  the  names, 
both  of  the  parts  of  the  body,  of  diseases,  and  of  medi- 
cines are  derived  from  the  Greek  language:  and  there 
are  many  excellent  books  of  physic,  both  in  the  theo- 
retical and  practical  parts  of  it  which  are  delivered  to 
the  world  in  the  Roman  tongue,  and  of  which  that  pro- 
fession should  not  be  ignorant. 

XXIX.  Such  as  intend  the  study  of  theology  should 
be  well  acquainted  also  with  the  Latin,  because  it  has 
been  for  many  hundred  years  the  language  of  the  schools 
of  learning:  their  disputations  are  generally  limited  to 
that  language,  and  many  and  excellent  books  of  divinity 
must  be  entirely  concealed  from  the  students,  unless 
they  are  acquainted  with  Latin  authors. 

But  those  that  design  the  sacred  profession  of  theolo- 
gy should  make  it  their  labour  of  chief  importance  to 
be  very  conversant  with  their  Bibles,  both  in  the  Old 
and  New  Testament:  and  this  requires  some  knowledge 
of  those  original  languages,  Greek  and  Hebrew,  in 
which  the  Scriptures  were  written.  All  that  will  pursue 
these  studies  with  honour  should  be  able  to  read  the  Old 
Testament  tolerably  in  the  Hebrew  tongue ;  at  least  they 
should  be  so  far  acquainted  with  it  as  to  find  out  the 
sense  of  a  text  by  the  help  of  a  dictionary.     But  scarce 


i 


AND  THEIR  USE.  211 

any  man  should  be  thought  worthy  of  tlie  name  of  a 
solid  divine,  or  a  skilful  teaclier  of  tiie  Gospel,  in  these 
days  of  light  and  liberty,  unless  he  has  pretty  good 
knowledge  of  the  Greek,  since  all  the  important  points 
of  the  Ciiristian  religion  are  derived  from  the  New  Tes- 
tament, wliich  was  first  written  in  that  language. 

XXX.  As  for  the  Syriac  and  Arabic  tongues,  if  one 
divine  in  thirty,  or  in  three  hundred,  travel  far  into  these 
regions,  it  is  enough.  A  few  learned  men  skilled  in 
these  languages  will  make  sufficient  remarks  upon  them 
for  the  service  of  the  whole  Christian  world ;  which  re- 
marks may  sometimes  happen  to  be  of  use  to  those  di- 
vines who  are  unacquainted  with  them  in  reading  the 
Bible.  But  the  advantage  of  these  tongues  is  not  of  so 
great  importance  as  it  lias  been  too  often  represented. 
My  reader  will  agree  with  me,  when  he  considers  that 
the  chief  uses  of  them  are  these: 

The  Arabic  is  a  language  which  has  some  kindred 
and  affinity  to  the  Hebrew,  and  perhaps  we  may  now 
and  then  guess  at  the  sense  of  some  uncommon  and 
doubtful  Hebrew  word,  which  is  found  but  once  or  twice 
in  the  Bible,  by  its  supposed  affinity  to  the  Arabic:  but 
whatever  conjectures  may  be  made  by  some  kindred  of 
a  Hebrew  word  to  an  Arabic  root,  yet  there  is  no  cer- 
tainty to  be  gathered  from  it:  for  even  words  of  the 
same  language,  which  are  undoubtedly  of  the  same 
theme  or  primitive,  will  give  us  but  very  doubtful  and 
sorry  information  concerning  the  true  sense  of  kindred 
words  which  spring  from  the  same  theme. 

Let  me  give  a  plain  instance  or  two  of  this  uncertain- 
ty. The  word  strages  signifies  slaugiiter;  stratum  is 
Latin  for  a  bed ;  stramen  is  straw ;  and  stragiUum  is  a 
quilt  or  coverlid :  they  are  all  drawn  and  derived  from 
sterno;  which  signifies  to  throw  down,  to  kill,  or  to 
spread  abroad.  Let  the  critics  tell  me  what  certain 
sense  they  could  put  upon  either  of  these  four  words  by 
their  mere  cognation  with  each  other,  or  their  deriva- 
tion from  one  common  verb.  Again,  who  can  tell  me 
the  certain  meaning  and  precise  idea  of  the  word  honest 
in  English,  and  assure  me  that  it  signifies  a  man  of  in- 
tegrity, justice,  and   probity,  though   it    is   evidently 


212  OF  THE  SCIENCES, 

derived  from  honestus  in  Latin?  Whereas  honeslus  has  a 
very  different  idea,  and  signifies  a  man  of  some  figure 
in  the  world,  or  a  man  of  honour.  Let  any  man  judge 
then  how  httle  service  toward  explaining  the  Hebrew 
tongue  can  be  furnished  from  all  the  language  of  Arabia. 
Surely  a  great  part  of  the  long  learned  fatigues  and 
tiresome  travels  of  men  through  this  country  is  almost 
vain  and  useless  to  make  the  Hebrew  Bible  better  un- 
derstood. 

As  for  the  Syriac  language,  it  is  granted  there  may 
be  some  small  advantage  drawn  from  the  knowledge  of 
it,  because  there  is  a  very  ancient  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  in  that  tongue;  and  perhaps  this  may  some- 
times give  a  proper  and  apposite  meaning  to  a  difficult 
and  doubtful  text,  and  offer  a  fair  hint  for  recovering 
the  true  meaning  of  the  Scripture  from  the  perverse 
glosses  of  other  writers.  But  there  are  several  com- 
mentators and  lexicographers  who  have  been  acquainted 
witli  the  Syriac  language,  and  have  given  us  the  chief 
of  these  hints  in  their  writings  on  Scripture. 

And  after  all,  since  none  of  these  assistances  can  yield 
us  a  sufficient  proof  of  a  true  interpretation,  and  give  a 
certain  sense  of  a  text,  who  would  be  persuaded  to  waste 
any  great  number  of  his  better  hours  in  such  dry  studies, 
and  in  labours  of  so  little  profit? 

XXXL  The  Chaldean  language,  indeed,  is  much 
nearer  to  the  Hebrew,  and  it  is  proper  for  a  divine  to 
have  some  acquaintance  with  it,  because  there  are  several 
verses  or  chapters  of  Ezra  and  Daniel  which  are  written 
in  that  language:  and  the  old  Jewish  targums  or  com- 
mentaries, which  are  written  in  the  Chaldean  tongue, 
may  sometimes  happen  to  cast  a  light  upon  a  little 
doubtful  Scripture  of  the  Old  Testament. 

But  it  must  be  still  owned  that  the  knowledge  of 
these  Eastern  tongues  does  not  deserve  to  be  magnified 
to  such  a  degree  as  some  of  the  proficients  in  them  have 
indulged;  wherein  they  have  carried  matters  beyond  all 
reason  and  justice,  since  scarce  any  of  the  most  impor- 
tant subjects  of  the  Gospel  of  Christ  and  the  way  of 
salvation  can  gain  any  advantage  from  them. 

XXXII.  The  art  of  grammar  comes  now  to  be  men- 


AND  THEIR  USE.  213 

lioned.  It  is  a  distinct  thing  from  the  mere  knowledge 
of  the  languages;  for  all  mankind  are  taught  from  their 
infancy  to  speak  their  common  tongue,  by  a  natural 
imitation  of  their  mothers  and  nurses,  and  those  who 
are  round  about  them,  without  any  knowledge  of  the  art 
of  grammar,  and  tlie  various  observations  and  rules  that 
relate  to  it.  Grammar  indeed  is  nothing  else  but  rules 
and  observations  drawn  from  the  common  speech  of 
mankind  in  their  several  languages;  and  it  teaches  us  to 
speak  and  pronounce,  to  spell  and  write  with  propriety 
and  exactness,  according  to  the  custom  of  those  in  every 
nation  who  are  or  were  supposed  to  speak  and  write 
their  own  language  best.  Now  it  is  a  shame  for  a  man 
to  pretend  to  science  and  study  in  any  of  the  three 
learned  professions,  who  is  not  in  some  measure  ac- 
quainted with  the  propriety  of  those  languages  with 
which  he  ought  to  be  conversant  in  his  daily  studies, 
and  more  especially  in  such  as  he  may  sometimes  be 
called  upon  to  write  as  well  as  read. 

XXXIII.  Next  to  grammar,  we  proceed  to  consider 
rhetoric. 

Now  rhetoric  in  general  is  the  art  of  persuading, 
which   may  be  distinguished  into  these  three  parts;  viz. 

1.  Conveying  the  sense  of  the  speaker  to  the  under- 
standing of  the  hearers  in  the  clearest  and  most  intelli- 
gible manner,  by  the  plainest  expressions  and  the  most 
lively  and  striking  representations  of  it,  so  that  the  mind 
may  be  thoroughly  convinced  of  the  thing  proposed. 

2.  Persuading  the  will  effectually  to  choose  or  refuse 
the  thing  suggested  and  represented.  3.  Raising  the 
passions  in  the  most  vivid  and  forcible  manner,  so  as  to 
set  all  the  soul  and  every  power  of  nature  at  work,  to 
pursue  or  avoid  the  thing  ia  debate. 

To  attain  this  end  there  is  not  only  a  great  deal  of 
art  necessary  in  the  representation  of  matters  to  the 
auditory,  but  also  in  the  disposition  or  method  of  intro- 
ducing these  particular  representations,  togetlier  with 
the  reasons  which  might  convince,  and  the  various 
methods  which  might  persuade  and  prevail  upon  the 
hearers.  There  are  certain  seasons  wherein  a  violent 
torrent  of  oration,  in  a  disguised  and  concealed  method. 


^I'i  OF    THE    SCIENCES, 

may  be  m.ore  elTectual  than  all  the  nice  forms  of  logic 
and  reasoning.  The  fig^ures  of  interrogation  and  excla- 
mation have  sometimes  a  large  place  and  happy  effect 
in  tliis  sort  of  discourse,  and  no  figure  of  speech  should 
he  wanting  here  where  the  speaker  has  art  enough  hap- 
pily to  introduce  it. 

There  are  many  remarks  and  rules  laid  down  by  the 
teachers  of  this  art  to  improve  a  young  genius  in  those 
glorious  talents  whereby  Tully  and  Demosthenes  ac- 
quired tliat  amazing  influence  and  success  in  their  own 
age  and  nation,  and  that  inmiortal  fame  through  all 
nations  and  ages.  And  it  is  with  great  advantage  these 
rules  may  be  perused  and  learned.  But  a  happy  genius, 
a  lively  imagination,  and  warm  passions,  together  with 
a  due  degree  of  knowledge  and  skill  in  the  subject  to  be 
debated,  and  a  perpetual  perusal  of  the  writings  of  the 
best  orators,  and  hearing  the  best  speakers,  will  do  more 
to  make  an  orator,  than  all  the  rules  of  art  in  the  world, 
without  these  natural  talents,  and  this  careful  imitation 
of  the  most  approved  and  happiest  orators. 

XXXIV.  Now  you  will  presently  suppose  that  plead- 
ers at  the  bar  have  great  need  of  this  art  of  rhetoric;  but 
it  has  been  a  just  doubt,  whether  pleading  in  our  British 
courts  of  justice,  before  a  skilful  judge,  should  admit  of 
any  other  aid  from  rhetoric  than  that  which  teaches  to 
open  a  cause  clearly,  and  spread  it  in  the  most  per- 
spicuous, complete,  and  impartial  manner,  before  the 
eyes  of  him  who  judges:  for  impartial  justice  being  the 
thing  which  is  souglit,  there  should  be  no  artifices  used, 
no  eloquence  or  power  of  language  employed  to  per- 
suade the  will  or  work  upon  the  passions,  lest  the  de- 
cisive sentence  of  the  judge  should  be  biased  or  warped 
into  injustice.  For  this  reason  Mr.  Locke  would  banish 
all  pleaders  in  the  law  for  fees  out  of  his  government  of 
Carolina,  in  his  posthumous  works,  though  that  great 
man  might  possibly  be  too  severe  in  so  universal  a  cen- 
sure of  tlie  profession. 

XXXV.  But  the  case  is  very  different  with  regard  to 
divines:  the  eloquence  of  the  pulpit,  beyond  all  contro- 
versy, has  a  much  larger  extent. 

Their  business  is  not  to  plead  a  cause  of  right  and  wrong{ 


AND  THEIR  USE.  216 

before  a  wise  and  skilful  judge,  but  lo  address  all  the 
ranks  of  mankind,  the  high  and  low,  the  wise  and  the 
unwise,  the  sober  and  the  vicious,  and  persuade  thern 
all  to  pursue  and  persevere  in  virtue  with  regard  to  them- 
selves, m  justice  and  goodness  with  regard  to  their 
neigh-bours,  and  piety  towards  God.  These  are  affairs 
of  everlasting  importance,  and  most  of  the  persons  to 
whom  these  addresses  are  made  are  not  wise  and  skilful 
judges,  but  are  influenced  and  drawn  to  tlie  contrary  side 
by  their  own  sinful  appetites  and  passions,  and  bribed 
or  biased  by  the  corrupt  customs  of  the  world. 

There  is  therefore  a  necessity  not  only  of  a  clear  and 
faithful  representation  of  tiungs  to  men,  in  order  to  con- 
vince their  reason  and  judgment,  but  of  all  the  skill  and 
force  of  persuasion  addressed  to  the  will  and  the  passions. 
So  Tully  addressed  the  whole  senate  of  Rome,  and  De- 
mosthenes the  Athenian  people,  among  whom  were  ca- 
pacities and  inclinations  of  infinite  variety;  and  tlierefore 
they  made  use  of  all  the  lightning  and  thunder,  all  the 
entreaties  and  terrors,  all  the  soothing  elegancies  and 
the  flowery  beauties  of  language,  which  their  art  could 
furnish  them  with.  Divines  in  tiie  pulpit  have  much 
the  same  sort  of  hearers,  and  therefore  they  should  imi- 
tate those  ancient  examples.  The  understanding  indeed 
ought  to  be  first  convinced  by  the  plainest  and  strongest 
force  of  reasoning;  but  when  this  is  done,  all  the 
powerful  motives  should  be  used  which  have  any  just 
influence  upon  human  nature;  all  the  springs  of  passion 
should  be  touched,  to  awaken  the  stupid  and  tlie  thought- 
less into  consideration,  to  penetrate  and  n>elt  the  hard- 
est heart,  to  persuade  the  unwilling,  to  excite  the  lazy, 
to  reclaim  the  obstinate,  and  reform  the  vicious  part  of 
mankind,  as  well  as  to  encourage  those  who  are  humble 
and  pious,  and  to  support  their  practice  and  tlieir  hope. 
The  tribes  of  men  are  sunk  into  so  fatal  a  degeneracy 
and  dreadful  distance  from  God,  and  from  all  that  is 
holy  and  happy,  that  all  the  eloquence  which  a  preacher 
is  master  of  should  be  employed  in  order  to  recover  the 
world  from  its  shameful  ruin  and  wretchedness  by  the 
Gospel  of  our  blessed  Saviour,  and  restore  it  to  virtue 
and  piety,  to  God  and  happiness,  by  the  divine  power 


216  OF  THE  SCIENCES, 

of  this  Gospel.  O  may  such  glorious  masters  and  sacred 
oratory  never  be  wanting  in  the  pulpits  of  Great  Britain! 

XXXVI.  Shall  I  now  speak  something  of  my  senti- 
ments concerning  poesy? 

As  for  books  of  poesy,  whether  in  the  learned  or  in 
the  modern  languages,  they  are  of  great  use  to  be  read 
at  hours  of  leisure  by  all  persons,  that  make  any  pre- 
tence to  good  education  or  learning;  and  that  for  several 
reasons. 

1.  Because  there  are  many  couplets  or  stanzas  writ- 
ten in  poetic  measures,  which  contain  a  variety  of  mor- 
als or  rules  of  practice  relating  to  the  common  pruden- 
tials of  mankind,  as  well  as  to  matters  of  religion;  and 
the  poetic  numbers  (or  rhyme,  if  there  be  any)  add  very 
considerable  force  to  the  memory. 

Besides,  many  an  elegant  and  admirable  sentiment  or 
description  of  things  which  are  found  among  the  poets 
are  well  worth  committing  to  memory,  and  the  partic- 
ular measures  of  verse  greatly  assist  us  in  recollecting 
such  excellent  passages,  wiiich  might  sometimes  raise 
our  conversation  from  low  and  grovelling  subjects. 

2.  In  heroic  verse,  but  especially  in  the  grander  lyrics, 
there  are  sometimes  such  noble  elevations  of  tliought 
and  passion  as  illuminate  all  things  around  us,  and 
convey  to  the  soul  most  exalted  and  magnificent  images 
and  sublime  sentiments:  tliese  furnish  us  with  glorious 
springs  and  mediums  to  raise  and  aggrandize  our  con- 
ceptions, to  warm  our  souls,  to  awaken  the  better  pas- 
sions, and  to  elevate  tliem  to  a  divine  pitch,  and  that 
for  devotional  purposes.  It  is  the  lyric  ode  which  has 
shown  to  tlie  world  some  of  the  happiest  examples  of 
this  kind,  and  I  cannot  say  but  this  part  of  poesy  has 
been  my  favourite  amusement  above  all  others. 

And  for  this  reason  it  is  that  I  have  never  thought 
the  heroic  poems,  Greek,  Latin,  or  English,  which  have 
obtained  the  highest  fame  in  the  world  are  sufficiently 
diversified,  exalted,  or  animated,  for  want  of  the  intersper- 
sion  of  now  and  then  an  elegiac  or  lyric  ode.  This 
miglit  have  been  done  with  great  and  beautiful  proprie- 
ty, where  the  poet  has  introduced  a  song  at  a  feast,  or 
the  joys  of  a  victory,  or  soliloquies  of  divine  satisfac- 


AND  THEIR  USE.  217 

tion,  or  the  pensive  and  despairing  agonies  of  distressing 
sorrows.  Why  should  that  which  is  called  the  most 
glorious  form  of  poesy  be  bound  down  and  confined  to 
such  a  long  and  endless  uniformity  of  measures,  when 
it  should  kindle  or  melt  the  soul,  swell  or  sink  into  all 
the  various  and  transporting  chances  which  human  na- 
ture is  capable  of? 

Cowley,  in  his  unfinished  fragment  of  the  Davideis, 
has  shown  this  way  to  improvement;  and  whatever 
blemishes  may  be  found  in  other  parts  of  that  heroic 
essay,  this  beauty  and  glory  of  it  ought  to  be  preserved 
for  imitation.  I  am  well  assured  that  if  Homer  and 
Virgil  had  happened  to  practise  it,  it  would  have  been 
renowned  and  glorified  by  every  critic.  I  am  greatly 
mistaken  if  this  wise  mixture  of  numbers  would  not  be 
a  further  reach  of  perfection  than  they  have  ever  attain- 
ed to  without  it:  let  it  be  remembered,  that  it  is  not  na- 
ture, and  strict  reason,  but  a  weak  and  awful  reverence 
of  antiquity,  and  the  vogue  of  fallible  men,  that  has 
established  these  Greek  and  Roman  writings  as  absolute 
and  complete  patterns.  In  several  ages  there  have  been 
some  men  of  learning  who  have  very  justly  disputed 
this  glory,  and  have  pointed  to  many  of  their  mistakes. 

3.  But  still  there  is  another  end  of  reading  poesy,  and 
perhaps  the  most  considerable  advantage  to  be  obtained 
from  it  by  the  bulk  of  mankind,  and  that  is,  to  furnish 
our  tongues  with  the  richest  and  the  most  polite  variety 
of  phrases  and  words  upon  all  occasions  of  life  or  reli- 
gion. He  that  writes  well  in  verse  will  often  find  a 
necessity  to  send  his  thoughts  in  search  through  all  the 
treasure  of  words  that  express  any  one  idea  in  the  same 
language,  that  so  he  may  comport  with  the  measures 
or  the  rliyme  of  the  verse  which  he  writes,  or  with  his 
own  most  beautiful  and  vivid  sentiments  of  the  thing 
he  describes.  Now  by  much  reading  of  this  kind  we 
shall  insensibly  acquire  the  habit  and  skill  of  diversify- 
ing our  ideas  in  tiie  most  proper  and  beautiful  lan- 
guage, whether  we  write  or  speak  of  the  things  of  God 
or  men. 

It  is  a  pity  that  some  of  these  harmonious  writers 
have  ever  indulged  any  thing  uncleanly  or  impure  to 
19 


218  OF  THE  SCIENCES, 

defile  their  paper  and  abuse  the  ears  of  their  readers, 
or  to  offend  against  the  rules  of  the  nicest  virtue  and 
politeness:  but  still  amongst  the  writings  of  Mr.  Dry  den, 
and  Mr.  Pope,  and  Dr.  Young,  as  well  as  otiiers,  there 
is  a  sufficient  choice  in  our  own  language,  wherein  we 
shall  not  find  any  indecency  to  shock  the  most  modest 
tongue  or  ear. 

Perhaps  there  has  hardly  been  a  writer  \n  any  nation, 
and  I  may  dare  to  aflirm  there  is  none  in  ours,  has  a 
richer  and  happier  talent  of  painting  to  the  life,  or  has 
ever  discovered  such  a  large  and  inexhausted  variety  of 
description,  as  the  celebrated  Mr.  Pope.  If  you  read 
his  translation  of  Homer's  Iliad,  you  will  find  almost 
all  the  terms  or  phrases  in  our  tongue  that  are  needful 
to  express  any  tiling  that  is  grand  or  magnificent;  but 
if  you  peruse  his  Odyssey,  which  descends  much  more 
into  common  life,  there  is  scarce  any  useful  subject  of 
discourse  or  thought,  or  any  ordinary  occurrence,  which 
he  has  not  cultivated  and  dressed  in  the  most  proper 
language;  and  yet  still  he  has  ennobled  and  enlivened 
even  the  lower  subjects  with  the  brightest  and  most 
agreeable  ornaments. 

I  should  add  here  also,  that  if  the  same  author  had 
more  frequently  employed  his  pen  on  divine  themes,  his 
short  poem  on  the  Messiah,  and  some  part  of  his  letters 
between  Abelard  and  Eloisa,  with  that  ode  on  the  Dy- 
ing Christian,  &c.  sufiSciently  assure  us  that  his  pen 
would  have  honourably  imitated  some  of  the  tender 
scenes  of  penitential  sorrow,  as  well  as  the  sublimer 
odes  of  the  Hebrew  Psalmist,  and  perhaps  discovered 
to  us,  in  a  better  manner  than  any  other  translation 
has  done,  how  great  a  poet  sat  upon  the  throne  of  Israel. 

After  all  that  I  have  said,  there  is  yet  a  furtlier  use 
of  reading  poesy;  and  that  is.  when  the  mind  has  been 
fatigued  with  studies  of  a  more  laborious  kind,  or  when  it 
is  any  ways  unfit  for  the  pursuit  of  more  difficult  sub- 
jects, it  may  be  as  it  were  unbent,  and  repose  itself 
awhile  on  the  flowery  meadows  where  the  muses  dwell. 
It  is  a  very  sensible  relief  to  the  soul,  when  it  is  over- 
tired, to  amuse  itself  with  the  numbers  and  the  beauti- 
ful sentiments  of  the  poets;  and  in  a  little  time  this 


AND  THEIR  USE. 


219 


agreeable  amusement  may  recover  the  languid  spirits  to 
activity  and  more  important  service. 

XXXVII.  All  this  I  propose  to  the  world  as  my  best 
observations  about  reading  of  verse.  But  if  the  ques- 
tion were  offered  to  me,  Shall  a  student  of  a  bright  ge- 
nius never  divert  himself  with  writing  poesy.'  I  would 
answer,  Yes,  when  he  cannot  possibly  help  it;  a  lower 
ffenius,  in  mature  years,  would  heartily  wish  that  he 
had  spent  much  more  time  in  reading  the  best  authors 
of  this  kind,  and  employed  much  fewer  hours  in  wri- 
ting. But  it  must  be  confessed  or  supposed  at  least,  that 
there  may  be  seasons  when  it  is  hardly  possible  for  a 
poetic  soul  to  restrain  tlie  fancy  or  quench  the  flame, 
when  it  is  hard  to  suppress  the  exuberant  flow  of  lofty 
sentiments,  and  prevent  the  imagination  from  this  sort 
of  style  or  language:  and  that  is  the  only  season  I  think 
wherein  this  inclination  should  be  indulged,  especially 
by  persons  who  have  devoted  themselves  to  professions 
of  a  different  kind;  and  one  reason  is,  because  what  they 
write  in  that  hour  is  more  likely  to  carry  in  it  some  ap- 
pearance above  nature,  some  happy  imitation  of  the  dic- 
tates of  the  muse." 

XXXVIII.  There  are  other  things  besides  history, 
grammar  and  languages,  rhetoric  and  poesy,  which  had 
been  included  under  the  nameof  pliilological  knowledge; 
such  as  an  acquaintance  with  the  notions,  customs,  man- 
ners, tempers,  polity,  &c.  of  the  various  nations  of  the 
earth,  or  the  distinct  sects  and  tribes  of  mankind.  This 
is  necessary  in  order  to  understand  history  the  better; 
and  every  man  who  is  a  lawyer  or  a  gentleman  ought 
to  obtain  some  acquaintance  with  these  things,  without 
which  he  can  never  read  history  to  any  great  advantage, 
nor  can  he  maintain  his  own  station  and  character  in 
life  with  honour  and  dignity,  without  some  insight  into 
them. 

XXXIX.  Students  in  divinity  ought  to  seek  a  larger 
acquaintance  with  the  Jewish  laws,  polity,  customs,  &c. 

*The  rnuse,in  the  ancient  heathen  sense,  is  supposed  to  be  a  god- 
dess; but  in  the  philosophic  sense,  it  can  mean  no  more  th^n  a  bright 
genius,  with  a  warm  and  strong  imagination  elevated  to  an  uncom- 
mou  degree. 


220  OF  THE  SCIENCES,  &C. 

in  order  to  understand  many  passages  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  the  New,  and  to  vindicate  the  sacred  writers 
from  the  reproaclies  of  infidels.  An  acquaintance  also 
with  many  of  the  Roman  and  Grecian  affairs  is  needful 
to  explain  several  texts  of  Scripture  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, to  lead  sincere  inquirers  into  the  true  and  genuine 
sense  of  the  evangelists  and  apostles,  and  to  guard  their 
writings  from  the  unreasonable  cavils  of  men. 

XL.  The  art  of  criticism  is  reckoned  by  some  as  a  dis- 
tinct part  of  philology;  but  it  is  in  truth  nothing  else 
than  a  more  exact  or  accurate  knowledge  or  skill  in  the 
other  parts  of  it,  and  a  readiness  to  apply  that  knowledge 
upon  all  occasions,  in  order  to  judge  well  of  what  re- 
lates to  these  subjects,  to  explain  what  is  obscure  in  the 
authors  which  we  read,  to  supply  wliat  is  defective,  and 
amend  what  is  erroneous  in  manuscripts  or  ancient 
copies,  to  correct  the  mistakes  of  authors  and  editors  in 
the  sense  of  the  words,  to  reconcile  the  controversies 
of  the  learned,  and  by  this  means  to  spread  a  juster 
knowledge  of  these  things  among  the  inquisitive  part  of 
mankind. 

Every  man  who  pretends  to  the  learned  professions, 
if  he  doth  not  arise  to  be  a  critic  himself  in  philological 
matters,  he  should  be  frequently  conversing  with  those 
books,  whether  dictionaries,  paraphrasts,  commentators, 
or  other  critics,  which  may  relieve  any  difficulties  he 
meets  with,  and  give  him  a  more  exact  acquaintance 
with  those  studies  which  he  pursues. 

And  whensoever  any  person  is  arrived  to  such  a  de- 
gree of  knowledge  in  these  things  as  to  furnish  him  well 
for  the  practice  of  criticism,  let  him  take  great  care  that 
pride  and  vanity,  contempt  of  others,  with  inward  wrath 
and  insolence,  do  not  mingle  themselves  with  his  re- 
marks and  censures.  Let  him  remember  the  common 
frailties  of  human  nature,  and  the  mistakes  to  which  the 
wisest  man  is  sometimes  liable,  that  he  may  practise  this 
art  with  due  modesty  and  candour. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  MIND. 


PART  II. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  chief  design  of  the  former  part  of  this  book  is  to 
lead  us  into  proper  methods  for  the  improvement  of  our 
own  knowledge.  Let  us  now  consider  what  are  the 
best  means  of  improving  the  minds  of  others,  and  of 
communicating  to  them  the  knowledge  which  we  have 
acquired.  If  the  treasures  of  the  mind  should  be  hoard- 
ed up  and  concealed,  they  would  profit  none  besides  the 
possessor;  and  even  his  advantage  by  the  possession 
would  be  poor  and  narrow  in  comparison  of  what  the 
same  treasures  would  yield,  both  to  himself  and  to  the 
world,  by  a  free  communication  and  diffusion  of  them. 
Large  quantities  of  knowledge  acquired  and  reserved  by 
one  man,  like  heaps  of  gold  and  silver,  would  contract 
a  sort  of  rust  and  disagreeable  aspect  by  lying  in 
everlasting  secrecy  and  silence;  but  they  are  burnished 
and  glitter  by  perpetual  circulation  through  the  tribes 
of  mankind. 

The  two  chief  ways  of  conveying  knowledge  to  others 
are  that  of  verbal  instruction  to  our  disciples,  or  by 
writing  and  publishing  our  thouglits  to  the  world. 

Here  therefore  I  shall  propose  some  observations 
which  relate  to  the  conveyance  of  knowledge  to  others, 
by  regular  lectures  of  verbal  instruction,  or  by  conver- 
19* 


222  INTRODUCTION. 

sation:  I  shall  represent  several  of  the  chief  prejudices 
of  which  learners  are  in  danger,  with  directions  to  guard 
against  then);  and  then  mention  some  of  the  easiest  and 
most  effectual  ways  of  convincing  persons  of  their  mis- 
takes, and  of  dealing  with  their  understanding  when 
they  labour  under  the  power  of  prejudice.  I  shall  after- 
wards add,  by  way  of  appendix,  an  essay,  written  many 
years  ago,  on  the  subject  of  Education,  when  1  designed 
a  more  complete  treatise  of  it. 


I 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING,  &C.  223 


CHAPTER  I. 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING  AND  READING  LECTURES. 

He  that  has  learned  any  thing  thoroughly,  in  a  clear 
and  methodical  manner,  and  has  attained  a  distinct  per- 
ception, and  an  ample  survey  of  the  whole  subject,  is 
generally  best  prepared  to  teach  the  same  subject  in  a 
clear  and  easy  method:  for  having  acquired  a  large  and 
distinct  idea  of  it  himself,  and  made  it  familiar  to  him 
by  frequent  meditation,  reading,  and  occasional  dis- 
course, lie  is  supposed  to  see  it  on  all  sides,  to  grasp  it, 
with  all  its  appendices  and  relations,  in  one  survey,  and 
is  better  able  to  represent  it  to  the  learner  in  all  its  views, 
with  all  its  properties,  relations,  and  consequences.  He 
knows  which  view  or  side  of  the  subject  to  hold  out  first 
to  his  disciple,  and  how  to  propose  to  his  understanding 
that  part  of  it  which  is  easiest  to  apprehend;  and  also 
knows  how  to  set  it  in  such  a  light  as  is  most  likely  to 
allure  and  to  assist  his  further  inquiry. 

But  it  is  not  every  one  who  is  a  great  scholar  that 
always  becomes  the  happiest  teacher,  even  though  he 
may  have  a  clear  conception,  and  a  methodical  as  well 
as  an  extensive  survey  of  the  branches  of  any  science. 
He  must  also  be  well  acquainted  with  words,  as  well  as 
ideas,  in  a  proper  variety,  that  when  his  disciple  does 
not  take  in  the  ideas  of  one  form  of  expression,  he  may 
change  the  phrase  into  several  forms,  till  at  last  he  hits 
the  understanding  of  his  scholar,  and  enlightens  it  in  the 
just  idea  of  truth. 

Besides  this,  a  tutor  should  be  a  person  of  a  happy 
and  condescending  temper,  who  has  patience  to  bear 
with  a  slowness  of  perception  or  want  of  sagacity  in 
some  learners.  He  should  also  have  much  candour  of 
soul,  to  pass  a  gentle  censure  on  their  impertinences, 
and  to  pity  them  in  their  mistakes,  and  use  every  mild 
and  engaging  method  for  insinuating  knowledge  into 
tb'^r^  who  are  willing  and  diligent  in  seeking  truth,  as 
well  as  reclaiming  those  who  are  wandering  into  error. 

But  of  this  I  have  spoken  somewhat  already  in  a 


224  METHODS  OF  TEACHING, 

chapter  of  the  former  part,  and  shall  have  occasion  to 
express  somewhat  more  of  it  shortly. 

A  very  pretty  and  useful  way  to  lead  a  person  into 
any  particular  truth  is,  by  qtiestions  and  answers,  which 
is  the  Socratical  method  of  disputation,  and  therefore  I 
refer  the  reader  to  that  chapter  or  section  which  treats 
of  it.  On  this  account  dialogues  are  used  as  a  polite 
and  pleasant  mode  of  leading  gentlemen  and  ladies  into 
some  of  the  sciences,  who  seek  not  the  most  accurate 
and  methodical  measure  of  learning. 

But  the  most  useful,  and  perhaps  the  most  excellent 
way  of  instructing  students  in  any  of  the  sciences,  is  by 
reading  lectures,  as  tutors  in  the  academy  do  to  their 
pupils. 

The  first  work  is  to  choose  a  book  well  written, 
which  contains  a  short  scheme  or  abstract  of  that  science, 
or  at  least  it  should  not  be  a  very  copious  and  diffusive 
treatise.  Or  if  the  tutor  knows  not  any  such  book  al- 
ready written,  he  should  draw  up  an  abstract  of  that 
science  himself,  containing  the  most  substantial  and  im- 
portant parts  of  it,  disposed  in  such  a  method  as  he  best 
approves. 

Let  a  chapter  or  section  of  this  be  read  daily  by  tlie 
learner,  on  which  the  tutor  sliould  paraphrase  in  this 
manner,  namely, — 

He  should  explain  both  words  and  ideas  more  largely; 
and  especially  what  is  dark  and  difficult  should  be 
opened  and  illustrated,  partly  by  various  forms  of  speech, 
and  partly  by  apt  similitudes  and  examples.  Where  the 
sense  of  tlie  author  is  dubious,  it  must  also  be  fixed  and 
determined. 

Where  the  arguments  are  strong  and  cogent,  they 
should  be  enforced  by  some  further  paraphrase,  and  the 
truth  of  the  inferences  should  be  made  plainly  to  appear. 
Where  the  arguments  are  weak  and  insufficient,  they 
should  be  either  confirmed  or  rejected  as  useless;  and 
new  arguments,  if  need  be,  should  be  added  to  support 
that  doctrine. 

What  is  treated  very  concisely  in  the  author  should 
be  amplified;  and  where  several  things  are  laid  closely 


AND  READING  LECTURES.  225 

together,  they  must  be  taken  to  pieces  and  opened  by 
parts. 

Where  the  tutor  differs  from  the  author  which  he 
reads,  he  should  gently  point  out  and  confute  his  mis- 
takes. 

Where  the  method  and  order  of  the  book  is  just  and 
happy,  it  should  be  pursued  and  commended:  where  it 
is  defective  and  irregular,  it  should  be  corrected. 

The  most  necessary,  the  most  remarkable  and  useful 
parts  of  that  treatise,  or  of  that  science,  should  be  pecu- 
liarly recommended  to  the  learners,  and  pressed  upon 
them  tliat  they  would  retain  it  in  memory;  and  what  is 
more  necessary  or  superfluous  should  be  distinguished, 
lest  the  learner  should  spend  too  much  time  in  the  more 
needless  parts  of  a  science. 

The  various  ends,  uses,  and  services  of  that  science, 
or  of  any  part  of  it,  should  also  be  declared  and  exem- 
plified, as  far  as  the  tutor  hath  opportunity  and  furni- 
ture to  do  it;  particularly  in  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy. 

And  if  there  be  any  thing  remarkably  beautiful  or  de- 
fective in  the  style  of  the  writer,  it  is  proper  for  the 
tutor  to  make  a  just  remark  upon  it. 

While  he  is  reading  and  explaining  any  particular 
treatise  to  his  pupils,  he  may  compare  the  different 
editions  of  the  same  book,  or  different  writers  upon  the 
same  subject:  he  sliould  inform  them  where  that  subject 
is  treated  by  other  authors  which  they  may  peruse,  and 
lead  his  disciples  thereby  to  a  further  elucidation,  con- 
firmation, or  improvement  of  that  theme  of  discourse  in 
which  he  is  instructing  them. 

it  is  alluring  and  agreeable  to  the  learner  also,  now 
and  then,  to  be  entertained  with  some  historical  remarks 
on  any  occurrences  or  useful  stories  which  the  tutor  has 
met  with,  relating  to  the  several  parts  of  such  a  science; 
provided  he  does  not  put  off  his  pupils  merely  with  such 
stories,  and  neglect  to  give  them  a  solid  and  rational  in- 
formation of  the  theme  in  hand.  Teachers  should  en- 
deavour, as  far  as  possible,  to  join  profit  and  pleasure 
together,  and  mingle  delight  with  their  instructions; 
but  at  the  same  time  they  must  take  heed  that  they  do 


226  METHODS  OF  TEACHING, 

not  merely  amuse  the  ears  and  gratify  the  fancy  of  their 
disciples  without  enriching  their  minds. 

In  reading  lectures  of  instruction,  let  the  teacher  be 
very  solicitous  that  the  learners  take  up  his  meaning; 
and  therefore  he  should  frequently  inquire  wliether  he 
expresses  himself  intelligibly?  whether  they  understand 
his  sense,  and  take  in  all  his  ideas  as  he  endeavours  to 
convey  them  in  his  own  forms  of  speech? 

It  is  necessary  that  he  who  instructs  otliers  should 
use  the  most  proper  style  for  the  conveyance  of  his  ideas 
easily  into  the  minds  of  those  who  hear  him;  and  though 
in  teaching  the  sciences,  a  person  is  not  confined  to  the 
same  rules  by  which  we  must  govern  our  language  in 
conversation,  for  he  must  necessarily  make  use  of  many 
terms  of  art  and  hard  words,  yet  he  slioiild  never  use 
them  merely  to  show  his  learning,  nor  affect  sounding 
language  witliout  necessity,  a  caution  which  we  shall 
further  inculcate  anon. 

I  think  it  very  convenient  and  proper,  if  not  abso- 
lutely necessary,  that  when  a  tutor  reads  a  following 
lecture  to  his  pupils,  he  should  run  over  the  foregoing 
lecture  in  questions  proposed  to  them,  and  by  tliis  means 
acquaint  himself  with  their  daily  proficiency.*  It  is  in 
vain  for  the  learner  to  object,  Surely  we  are  not  school- 
boys, to  say  our  lessons  again:  we  came  to  be  taught, 
not  to  be  catechised  and  examined.  But,  alas!  how  is 
it  possible  for  a  teacher  to  proceed  in  his  instructions, 
if  he  knows  not  how  far  the  learner  takes  in  and  remem- 
bers what  he  has  been  tauglit? 

Besides,  I  must  generally  believe  it  is  sloth  or  idle- 
ness, it  is  real  ignorance,  incapacity,  or  unreasonable 
pride,  that  makes  a  learner  refuse  to  give  his  teacher  an 
account  how  far  he  has  profited  by  his  last  instructions. 
For  want  of  this  constant  examination  young  gentle- 
men have  spent  some  idle  and  useless  years,  even  under 

*  Tills  precaution,  though  never  to  be  neglected,  is  of  especial 
importance  when  a  pupil  is  entering  on  any  new  branch  of  learning, 
where  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  fundamental  definitions  and 
principles  should  not  only  be  clearly  understood,  but  rendered  very 
familiar  to  the  mind;  and  probably  most  tutors  have  found  young 
persons  sadly  bewildered  as  they  have  gone  on  in  their  lecture*,  for 
wautof  a  little  more  patience  and  care  in  this  respect. 


AND  READING  LECTURES.  227 

daily  labours  and  inspections  of  a  learned  teacher;  and 
they  have  returned  from  the  academy  without  the  gain 
of  any  one  science,  and  even  with  tlie  shameful  loss  of 
their  classical  learning,  that  is,  the  knowledge  of  Greek 
and  Latin,  which  they  had  learned  in  the  grammar- 
school. 

Let  the  teacher  always  accommodate  himself  to  the 
genius,  temper,  and  capacity  of  his  disciples,  and  prac- 
tise various  methods  of  prudence  to  allure,  persuade, 
and  assist  every  one  of  them  in  their  pursuit  of 
knowledge. 

Where  the  scholar  has  less  capacity,  let  the  teacher  en- 
large his  illustrations;  let  him  search  and  find  out  where 
the  learner  slicks,  what  is  the  difficulty,  and  thus  let 
him  help  the  labouring  intellect. 

Wliere  tlie  learner  manifests  a  forward  genius  and  a 
sprightly  curiosity  by  frequent  inquiries,  let  the  teacher 
oblige  such  an  inquisitive  soul  by  satisfying  those  ques- 
tions as  far  as  may  be  done  with  decency  and  conveni- 
ency;  and  wliere  these  inquiries  are  unseasonable,  let 
him  not  silence  the  young  inquirer  with  a  magisterial 
rebuff',  but  with  much  candour  and  gentleness  postpone 
those  questions,  and  refer  them  to  a  proper  hour. 

Curiosity  is  a  useful  s))riug  of  knowledge:  it  should 
be  encouraged  in  children,  and  awakened  by  frequent 
and  familiar  methods  of  talking  with  them.  It  should 
be  indulged  in  youth,  but  not  without  a  prudent  mode- 
ration. In  tliose  who  have  too  much,  it  should  be 
limited  by  a  wise  and  gentle  restraint  or  delay,  lest  by 
wandering  after  every  tiling,  they  learn  nothing  to  per- 
fection. In  those  who  have  too  little,  it  should  be  ex- 
cited, lest  they  grow  stupid,  narrow-spirited,  self-satis- 
fied, and  never  attain  a  treasure  of  ideas,  or  an  ampli- 
tude of  understanding. 

Let  not  the  teacher  demand  or  expect  things  too  sub- 
lime and  difficult  from  the  humble,  modest,  and  fearful 
disciple:  and  where  such  a  one  gives  a  just  and  happy 
answer,  even  to  plain  and  easy  questions,  let  him  have 
words  of  commendation  and  love  ready  for  him.  Let 
him  encourage  every  spark  of  kindling  light,  till  it  grow 
up  to  bright  evidence  and  confirmed  knowledge. 


228  METHODS  OF  TEACHING,  &C. 

When  he  finds  a  lad  pert,  positive,  and  presuming, 
let  the  tutor  take  every  just  occasion  to  show  him  his 
error ;  let  him  set  tlie  absurdity  in  complete  light  before 
him,  and  convince  him  by  a  full  demonstration  of  his 
mistake,  till  he  sees  and  feels  it,  and  learns  to  be  modest 
and  humble. 

A  teacher  should  not  only  observe  the  different  spirit 
and  humor  among  his  scholars,  but  he  should  watch  the 
various  efforts  of  their  reason  and  growth  of  tlieir  un- 
derstanding. He  should  practise  in  his  young  nursery 
of  learning  as  a  skilful  gardener  does  in  his  vegetable 
dominions,  and  apply  prudent  methods  of  cultivation  to 
every  plant.  Let  him  with  a  discreet  and  gentle  hand 
nip  or  prune  the  irregular  shoots;  let  him  guard  and  en- 
courage the  tender  buddings  of  the  understanding,  till 
they  be  raised  to  a  blossom,  and  let  him  kindly  cherish 
the  younger  fruits. 

The  tutor  should  take  every  occasion  to  instil  know- 
ledge into  his  disciples,  and  make  use  of  every  occur- 
rence of  life  to  raise  some  profitable  conversation  upon 
it;  he  should  frequently  inquire  something  of  his  disciples 
that  may  set  their  young  reason  to  work,  and  teach 
them  how  to  form  inferences,  and  to  draw  one  proposi- 
tion out  of  another. 

Reason  being  that  faculty  of  the  mind  which  lie  has 
to  deal  with  in  his  pupils,  let  him  endeavour  by  all  pro- 
per and  familiar  methods  to  call  it  into  exercise,  and  to 
enlarge  the  powers  of  it.  He  should  take  frequent  oppor- 
tunities to  show  them  when  an  idea  is  clear  or  confused, 
when  the  proposition  is  evident  or  doubtful,  and  when 
an  argument  is  feeble  or  strong.  And  by  tliis  means 
their  minds  will  be  so  formed,  tiiat  whatsoever  he  propo- 
ses with  evidence  and  strength  of  reas(m  they  will 
readily  receive. 

"When  any  uncommon  appearances  arise  in  the  natu- 
ral, moral,  or  political  world,  he  should  invite  and  in- 
struct them  to  make  their  remarks  on  it,  and  give  them 
the  best  reflections  of  his  own  for  the  improvement  of 
their  minds. 

He  should  by  all  means  make  it  appear  that  he  loves 


OF  AN  INSTRUCTIVE  STYLE.  229 

his  pupils,  and  that  he  seeks  nothing  so  much  as  their 
increase  of  knowledge,  and  their  growth  in  all  valuable- 
acquirements;  this  will  engage  their  affection  to  Ids 
person,  and  procure  a  jiLst  attention  to  his  lectures. 

And  indeed  there  is  but  little  hope  that  a  teacher 
should  obtain  any  success  in  his  instructions,  unless  those 
that  hear  him  have  some  good  degree  of  esteejji  aiul  re- 
spect for  his  person  and  character.  And  here  I  cannot 
but  take  notice  by  the  way,  that  it  is  a  matter  of  infinite 
and  unspeakable  injury  to  the  people  of  any  town  or 
parish  where  tlie  minister  lies  under  contempt.  If  he 
has  procured  it  by  his  own  conduct  he  is  doubly  crimi- 
nal, because  of  the  injury  he  does  to  the  souls  of  tliem 
that  hear  him:  but  if  this  contempt  and  reproach  be  cast 
upon  him  by  the  wicked,  malicious,  and  unjust  censures 
of  men,  they  must  bear  all  tlie  ill  consequences  of  re- 
ceiving no  good  by  his  labours,  and  will  be  accountable 
hereafter  to  the  great  and  divine  Judge  of  all. 

It  would  be  very  necessary  to  add  in  this  place  (if 
tutors  were  not  well  apprized  of  it  before)  that  since 
learners  are  obliged  to  seek  a  divine  blessing  on  their 
studies  by  fervent  prayer  to  the  God  of  all  wisdom,  their 
tutors  should  go  before  them  in  this  pious  practice,  and 
make  daily  addresses  to  Heaven  for  the  success  of  their 
instructions. 


CHAPTER  II. 


OF  AN  INSTRUCTIVE  STYLE. 


The  most  necessary  and  most  useful  character  of  a 
style  fit  for  instruction  is  that  it  be  plain,  perspicuous, 
and  easy.  And  here  I  shall  first  point  out  all  those 
errors  in  a  st)  ?e  which  diminish  or  destroy  the  perspicuity 
of  it,  and  then  mention  a  few  directions  how  to  obtain 
a  perspicuous  and  easy  style. 

The  errors  of  style,  which  must  be  avoided  by  teach- 
ers, are  these  that  fullow: 

20 


230  OF  AN  INSTRUCTIVE  STYLE. 

1.  The  use  of  many  foreign  words,  which  are  not 
sufficiently  naturalized  and  mingled  with  the  language 
which  we  speak  or  write.  It  is  true,  that  in  teaching 
the  sciences  in  English,  we  must  sometimes  use  words 
borrowed  from  the  Greek  and  Latin;  for  we  have  not  in 
English  names  for  a  variety  of  subjects  which  belong 
to  learning;  but  when  a  man  atfects,  upon  all  occasions, 
to  bring  in  long-sounding  words  from  the  ancient  lan- 
guages, witliout  necessity,  and  mingles  French  and 
other  outlandish  terms  and  plirases,  where  plain  English 
would  serve  as  well,  he  betrays  a  vain  and  foolish  genius, 
unbecoming  a  teaclier. 

2.  Avoid  a  fantastic  learned  style,  borrowed  from  the 
various  sciences,  where  the  subject  and  matter  do  not 
require  the  use  of  them.  Do  not  affect  terms  of  art  on 
every  occasion,  nor  seek  to  show  your  learning  by  sound- 
ing words  and  dark  phrases;  this  is  properly  called  ped- 
antry. 

Young  preachers,  just  come  from  the  schools,  are 
often  tempted  to  fill  their  sermons  with  logical  and  meta- 
physical terms  in  explaining  their  text,  and  feed  their 
hearers  with  sonorous  words  of  vanity.  This  scholastic 
language  perhaps  may  flatter  their  own  ambition,  and 
raise  a  wonderment  at  their  learning  among  the  staring 
multitude,  without  any  manner  of  influence  toward  the 
instruction  of  the  ignorant,  or  the  reformation  of  the 
immoral  or  impious:  these  terms  of  art  are  but  the  tools 
of  an  artificer,  by  which  his  work  is  wrought  in  pri- 
vate: but  the  tools  ought  not  to  appear  in  the  finislied 
workmanship. 

There  are  some  persons  so  fond  of  geometry,  that 
they  bring  in  lines  and  circles,  tangents  and  parabolas, 
theorems,  problems,  and  postulates,  upon  all  occasions. 
Others  who  have  dealt  in  astronomy,  borrow  even  their 
nouns  and  their  verbs  in  their  common  discourse  from 
the  stars  and  planets.  Instead  of  saying  Jacob  had 
twelve  sons,  they  tell  you  Jacob  had  as  many  sons  as 
there  are  signs  in  the  zodiac.  If  they  describe  an  in- 
constant person,  they  make  a  planet  of  him,  and  set 
him  forth  in  all  his  appearances,  direct,  retrograde,  and 
Btationary.      If   a    candle    be    set    behind    a    screen, 


op  AN  INSTRUCTIVE  STYLE.  231 

they  call  it  eclipsed;  and  tell  you  fine  stories  of  the  or- 
bit and  the  revolutions,  the  radii  and  the  limb  or  cir- 
cumference of  a  cart-wheel. 

Otliers  again  dress  up  their  sense  in  chymical  lan- 
guage. Extracts  and  oils,  salts  and  essences,  exalt  and 
invigorate  their  discourses:  a  great  wit  with  them  is  sub- 
limated spirit,  and  a  blockhead  is  a  caput  mortuum.  A 
certain  doctor  in  his  bill  swells  in  his  own  idea,  when 
he  tells  the  town  that  he  has  been  counsellor  to  the 
counsellors  of  several  kings  and  princes;  that  he  has 
arrived  at  the  knowledge  of  the  green,  black,  and 
golden  dragon,  known  only  to  magicians  and  hermetic 
philosophers.  It  would  be  well  if  the  quacks  alonp  had 
a  patent  for  this  language. 

3.  There  are  some  fine  affected  words  that  are  used 
only  at  court;  and  some  peculiar  phrases  that  are  sound- 
ing or  gaudy,  and  belong  only  to  the  theatre;  these 
should  not  come  into  the  lectures  of  instruction;  the 
language  of  poets  has  too  much  of  metaphor  in  it  to 
lead  mankind  into  clear  and  distinct  ideas  of  things:  the 
business  of  poesy  is  to  strike  the  soul  with  a  glaring 
light,  and  to  urge  the  passions  into  a  flame  by  splendid 
shows,  by  strong  images,  and  a  pathetic  vehemence  of 
style:  but  it  is  another  sort  of  speech  that  is  best  suited 
to  lead  the  calm  inquirer  into  just  conceptions  of  things. 

4.  There  is  a  mean  vulgar  style,  borrowed  from  the 
lower  ranks  of  mankind,  the  basest  characters,  and 
meanest  affairs  of  life:  this  is  also  to  be  avoided;  for  it 
should  be  supposed,  that  persons  of  liberal  education 
have  not  been  bred  up  within  the  hearing  of  such  lan- 
guage, and  consequently  they  cannot  understand  it;  be- 
sides that  it  would  create  very  offensive  ideas,  should 
we  borrow  even  similes  for  illustration  from  the  scul- 
lery, the  dunghill,  and  the  jakes. 

5.  An  obscure  and  mysterious  manner  of  expression 
and  cloudy  language  is  to  be  avoided.  Some  persons 
have  been  led  by  education,  or  by  some  foolish  preju- 
dices, into  a  dark  and  unintelligible  way  of  thinking  and 
speaking;  and  this  continues  with  them  all  their  lives, 
and  clouds  and  confounds  their  ideas,  perhaps  some  of 
these  may  have  been  blessed  with  a  great  and  compre- 


232  OF  AN  INSTRUCTIVE  STYLE. 

hensive  genius,  with  sublime  natural  parts,  and  a  tor- 
rent of  ideas  flowing  in  upon  them;  yet  for  want  of 
clearness  in  the  manner  of  tlieir  conception  and  lan- 
guage, they  sometimes  drown  their  own  subject  of  dis- 
course, and  overwhelm  their  argument  in  dari^ness  and 
perplexity:  such  preachers  as  have  read  much  of  the 
mystical  divinity  of  tiie  papists,  and  imitated  their  man- 
ner of  expression,  have  many  times  buried  a  fine  under- 
standing under  the  obscurity  of  such  a  style. 

6.  A  long  and  tedious  style  is  very  improper  for  a 
teacher,  for  this  also  lessens  the  perspicuity  of  it.  Some 
learned  writers  are  never  satisfied  unless  they  fill  up 
every'sentence  with  a  great  number  of  ideas  and  senti- 
ments; tlicy  swell  their  propositions  to  an  enormous 
size  by  explications,  exceptions,  and  precautions,  lest 
they  should  be  mistaken,  and  crowd  tiiem  all  into  the 
same  period:  they  involve  and  darken  their  discourse  by 
many  parentheses,  and  prolong  their  sentences  to  a  tire- 
some extent,  beyond  the  reach  of  a  common  compre- 
hension: such  sort  of  writers  or  speakers  may  be  rich 
in  knowledge,  but  they  are  seldom  fit  to  communicate 
it.  He  that  would  gain  a  happy  talent  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  otliers  must  know  how  to  disentangle  and  divide 
his  thoughts,  if  too  many  of  them  are  ready  to  crowd 
into  one  paragraph;  and  let  him  tather  speak  three  sen- 
tences distinctly  and  perspicuously,  which  tlie  hearer 
receives  at  once  with  his  ears  and  his  soul,  than  crowd 
all  the  tlioughts  into  one  sentence,  which  the  hearer 
has  forgot  before  he  can  understand  it. 

But  this  leads  me  to  the  next  tiling  I  proposed,  which 
was  to  mention  some  methods  whereby  such  a  perspi- 
cuity of  style  may  be  obtained  as  is  proper  for  in- 
struction. 

1.  Accustom  yourself  to  read  those  authors  who 
think  and  write  with  great  clearness  and  evidence,  such 
as  convey  their  ideas  into  your  understanding  as  fast  as 
your  eye  or  tongue  can  run  over  their  sentences:  this 
will  imprint  upon  the  mind  a  habit  of  imitation:  we 
shall  learn  the  style  with  which  we  are  very  conver- 
Bant,  and  practise  it  with  ease  and  success. 

2.  Get  a  distinct  and  comprehensive  knowledge  of 


OF  AN  INSTRUCTIVE  STYLE.  233 

the  subject  which  you  treat  of,  survey  it  on  all  sides,  and 
make  yourself  perfect  master  of  it;  then  you  will  have 
all  the  sentiments  that  relate  to  it  in  your  view  and  un- 
der your  command;  and  your  tongue  will  very  easily 
clothe  those  ideas  with  words  which  your  mind  has  first 
made  so  familiar  and  easy  to  itself. 

Scribendi  recte  sapere  est  et  principium  et  foris: 
Verbaque  provisam  rem  non  invita  sei}ueiitur. 

Hor.  de  Art  Poetiea. 

Good  teaching-  from  good  knowledge  springs; 
Words  will  make  haste  to  follow  things. 

3.  Be  well  skilled  in  the  lanfl^uage  which  you  speak; 
acquaint  yourself  with  all  the  idioms  and  special  plirases 
of  it,  which  are  necessary  to  convey  the  needful 
ideas  on  the  subject  of  which  you  treat  in  the  most  va- 
rious and  most  easy  manner  to  tlie  understanding  of 
the  hearer:  the  variation  of  a  phrase  in  several  forms  is 
of  admirable  use  to  instruct;  it  is  like  turning  all  sides 
of  the  subject  to  view;  and  if  the  learner  happen  not  to 
take  in  the  ideas  in  one  form  of  speech,  probably  anoth- 
er may  be  successful  for  that  end. 

Upon  this  account  I  have  always  thought  it  a  useful 
manuer  of  instruction,  which  is  used  in  some  Latin 
schools,  which  they  call  variation.  Take  some  plain 
sentence  in  the  English  tongue,  and  turn  it  into  many 
forms  in  Latin;  as  for  instance,  A  wolf  let  into  the 
slieepfold  will 'devour  the  sheep:  If  you  let  a  wolf  into 
the  fold,  the  sheep  will  be  devoured:  The  wolf  will  de- 
vour the  sheep,  if  the  slieepfold  be  left  open:  if  the  fold 
be  not  shut  carefully,  the  wolf  will  devour  tiie  shuep: 
The  sheep  will  be  devoured  by  the  wolf,  if  it  find  the 
way  into  the  fold  open:  There  is  no  defence  of  the  sheep 
from  the  wolf,  unless  it  be  kept  out  of  the  fold:  A  slaugh- 
ter will  be  made  among  the  sheep,  if  the  wolf  can  get 
into  the  fold.  Thus,  by  turning  the  active  voice  of 
verbs  into  the  passive,  and  the  nominative  case  of  nouns 
into  the  accusative,  and  altering  the  connexion  of  short 
stintences  by  ditTerent  adverbs  or  conjunctions,  and  by 
ablative  cases  with  a  preposition  brought  instead  of  the 
nominative,  or  by  particles  sometimes  put  instead  of 
the  verbs,  the  negation  of  the  contrary  instead  of  tho 
20* 


234  OF  AN  INSTRUCTIVE  STYLE. 

assertion  of  the  thing  first  proposed,  a  great  variety  of 
forms  of  speech  will  be  created  which  shall  express  the 
game  sense. 

4.  Acquire  a  variety  of  words,  a  copia  verbonim.  Let 
your  memory  be  rich  in  synonymous  terms,  or  words 
expressing  tlie  same  thing:  this  will  not  only  attain  tiie 
same  happy  effect  with  the  variation  of  phrases  in  the 
foregoing  direction,  but  it  will  add  a  beauty  also  to  your 
style,  by  securing  you  from  an  appearance  of  tautology, 
or  repeating  the  same  words  too  often,  which  sometimes 
may  disgust  the  ear  of  the  learner. 

6.  Learn  the  art  of  shortening  your  sentences  by 
dividing  a  lorig  complicated  period  into  two  or  three 
small  ones.  When  others  connect  and  join  two  or  tiiree 
sentences  in  one  by  relative  pronouns,  as,  which,  where- 
of, wherein,  whereto,  &c.  and  by  parentheses  frequently 
inserted,  do  you  rather  divide  them  into  distinct  periods; 
or  at  least,  if  they  must  he  united,  let  it  be  done  rather 
by  conjunctions  and  copulatives,  that  tliey  may  appear 
like  distinct  sentences,  and  give  less  confusion  to  the 
hearer  or  reader. 

I  know  no  method  so  effectually  to  learn  wliat  I 
mean,  as  to  take  now  and  then  some  page  of  an  author, 
who  is  guilty  uf  such  a  long  involved  parentlietical  style, 
and  translate  it  into  plainer  English,  by  dividing  the  ideas 
or  the  sentences  asunder,  and  multiplying  the  periods, 
till  the  language  become  smooth  and  easy,  and  intelli- 
gible at  first  reading. 

6.  Talk  frequently  to  young  and  ignorant  persons 
upon  subjects  which  are  new  and  unknown  to  them, 
and  be  diligent  to  inquire  whether  they  understand 
you  or  no:  this  will  put  you  upon  changing  your  phrases 
and  forms  of  speech  in  a  variety,  till  you  can  hit 
their  capacity,  and  convey  your  ideas  into  their  under- 
standing. 


OF   CONVINCING  OF  TRUTH,  &C.  286 


CHAPTER  III. 

OF  CONVINCING  OTHER  PERSONS   OF    ANT  TRUTH,  OR    DE- 
LIVERING THEM  FROM  ERRORS    AND    MISTAKES. 

When  we  are  arrived  at  a  just  and  rational  establish- 
ment in  an  opinion,  whether  it  relate  to  religion  or 
common  life,  we  are  naturally  desirous  of  brinoring  all 
the  world  into  our  sentiments;  and  this  proceeds  from 
the  affectation  and  pride  of  superior  influence  upon  the 
judgment  of  our  fellow  creatures,  much  more  frequent- 
ly than  it  does  from  a  sense  of  duty,  or  a  love  of  truth; 
so  vicious  and  corrupt  is  human  nature.  Yet  there  is 
such  a  thing  to  be  found  as  an  honest  and  sincere  de- 
light in  propagating  truth,  arising  from  a  dutiful  regard 
to  the  honours  of  our  Maimer,  and  a  hearty  love  to  man- 
kind. Now,  if  we  would  be  successful  in  our  attempts 
to  convince  men  of  their  errors,  and  promote  the  truth, 
let  us  divest  ourselves,  as  far  as  possible,  of  that  pride 
and  affectation  which  I  mentioned  before;  and  seek  to 
acquire  that  disinterested  love  to  men,  and  zeal  for  the 
truth,  vvhicii  will  naturally  lead  us  into  the  best  meth- 
ods to  promote  it. 

And  here  the  following  directions  may  be  useful: 
1.  If  you  would  convince  a  person  of  his  mistake, 
choose  a  proper  place,  a  happy  hour,  and  the  fittest  con- 
current circumstance  for  this  purpose.  Do  not  unsea- 
sonably set  upon  him  when  he  is  engaged  in  the  midst 
of  other  affairs,  but  wlien  his  soul  is  at  liberty  and  at 
leisure  to  hear  and  attend.  Accost  him  not  upon  that 
subject  when  his  spirit  is  ruffled  or  discomposed  with 
any  occurrences  of  life,  and  especially  when  he  has 
heated  his  passions  in  the  defence  of  a  contrary  opinion; 
but  rather  seize  some  golden  opportunity,  when  some 
occurrences  of  life  may  cast  a  favourable  aspect  upon 
the  truth  of  which  you  would  convince  him,  or  which 
may  throw  some  dark  and  unhappy  colour  or  consequen- 
ces upon  that  error  from  whicli  you  would  fain  deliver 
him.  There  are  in  life  some  mollissima  tempora  fandi, 
some  ver}'  agreeable  moments  of  addressing  a  person, 
which,  if  rightly  managed,  may  render  your  attempts 


236  OF  CONVINCING  OF   TRUTH,  OR 

much   more   successful,  and   his  conviclion   easy   and 
pleasant. 

2.  Make  it  appear,  by  your  whole  conduct  to  the 
person  you  would  teach,  that  you  mean  him  well;  that 
your  design  is  not  to  triumph  over  his  opinion,  nor  to 
expose  his  iijnorance,  or  his  incapacity  of  defending 
what  he  asserts.  Let  him  see  that  it  is  not  your  aim  to 
advance  your  own  character  as  a  disputant;  nor  to  set 
yourself  up  for  an  instructor  of  mankind;  but  that  you 
love  him,  and  seek  his  true  interest;  and  do  not  only  as- 
sure him  of  this  in  words,  when  you  are  entering  on  an 
argument  witii  liim,  but  let  the  whole  of  your  conduct 
to  him  at  all  times  demonstrate  your  real  friendship  for 
him.  Truth  and  argument  come  with  particular  force 
from  the  mouth  of  one  whom  we  trust  and  love. 

3.  The  softest  and  gentlest  address  to  the  erroneous 
is  the  best  way  to  convince  them  of  their  mistake. 
Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  represent  to  your  opponent 
that  he  is  not  far  from  tlie  truth,  and  tliat  you  would 
fain  draw  liim  a  little  nearer  to  it.  Commend  and  es- 
tablish whatever  he  says  that  is  just  and  true,  as  our 
blessed  Saviour  treated  the  young  scribe,  when  he  an- 
swered well  cojicerning  the  two  great  commandments, 
"Thou  art  not  far,"  says  our  Lord,  "from  the  kingdom 
of  heaven,"  Mark,  xii.  34.  Imitate  the  mildness  and 
conduct  of  tiie  blessed  Jesus. 

Come  as  near  your  opponent  as  you  can  in  all  your 
propositions,  and  yield  to  him  as  much  as  you  dare  in  a 
consistence  with  trutli  and  justice. 

It  is  a  very  great  and  fatal  mistake  in  persons  who 
attempt  to  convince  and  reconcile  others  to  their  party, 
when  they  make  the  ditlerence  appear  as  wide  as  possi- 
ble; this  is  siiocking  to  any  person  who  is  to  be  convin- 
ced; he  will  ciioose  rather  to  keep  and  maintain  his  own 
opinions,  if  he  cannot  come  into  yours  without  renoun- 
cing and  abandoning  every  thing  that  he  believed  be- 
fore. Human  nature  must  be  flattered  a  little  as  well 
as  reasoned  with,  that  so  the  argument  may  be  able  to 
come  at  his  understanding,  which  otherwise  will  be 
thrust  off  at  a  distance.  If  you  charge  a  man  with 
nonsense  and  absurdities,  with  heresy  and  self-contra- 


DELIVERING  FROM  ERROR.  237 

diction,  you  take  a  very  wrong  step  toward  convincing 
him. 

Always  remember  that  error  is  not  to  be  rooted  out 
of  the  mind  of  man  by  reproaches  and  raihng,  by  flash- 
es of  wit  and  biting  jests,  by  loud  exclamations  of  sharp 
ridicule:  long  declamations,  and  triumph  over  our  neigh- 
bour's mistake,  will  not  prove  the  way  to  convince  him; 
these  are  signs  either  of  a  bad  cause,  or  a  want  of  argu- 
ments or  capacity  for  the  defence  of  a  good  one. 

4.  Set  therefore  a  constant  watch  over  yourself,  lest 
you  grow  warm  in  dispute  before  you  are  aware.  The 
passions  never  clear  the  understanding,  but  raise  dark- 
ness, clouds,  and  confusion  in  the  soul:  human  nature  is 
like  water  which  has  mud  at  the  bottom  of  it,  it  may 
be  clear  when  it  is  calm  and  undisturbed,  and  the  ideas, 
like  pebbles,  appear  bright  at  tlie  bottom;  but  when  once 
it  is  stirred  and  moved  by  passion,  the  mud  rises  upper- 
most, and  spreads  confusion  and  darkness  over  all  the 
ideas:  you  cannot  set  things  in  so  just  and  so  clear  a  light 
before  the  eyes  of  your  neighbour,  wliile  your  own  con- 
ceptions are  clouded  with  lieat  and  passion. 

Besides,  when  your  own  spirits  are  a  little  disturbed, 
and  your  wrath  is  awakened,  this  naturally  kindles  the 
same  fire  in  your  correspondent,  and  prevents  him  from 
taking  in  your  ideas,  were  they  ever  so  clear;  for  his 
passions  are  engaged  all  on  a  sudden  for  the  defence  of 
his  own  mistakes,  and  they  combat  as  fiercely  as  yours 
do,  which  perhaps  may  be  awakened  on  the  side  of 
truth. 

To  provoke  a  person  whom  you  would  convince,  not 
only  arouses  his  anger,  and  sets  it  against  your  doctrine, 
but  it  directs  its  resentment  against  your  person,  as  well 
as  against  all  your  instructions  and  arguments.  You  must 
treat  an  opponent  like  a  friend,  if  yon  would  persuade 
him  to  learn  any  thing  from  you;  and  this  is  one  great 
reason  why  there  is  so  little  success  on  either  side  be- 
tween two  disputants,  or  controversial  writers,  because 
they  are  so  ready  to  interest  their  passions  in  the  sub- 
ject of  contest,  and  thereby  to  prevent  the  mutual  light 
that  might  be  given  and  received  on  either  side:  ambi- 
tion, indignation,  and  a  professed  zeal,  reign  on  both 


238  OF  CONVINCING  OF  TRUTH,  OR 

sides:  victor)'  is  the  point  designed,  while  truth  is  pre- 
tended; and  truth  oftentimes  perishes  in  the  fray,  or  re- 
tires from  the  field  of  battle:  the  combatants  end  just 
where  they  began,  their  understandings  hold  fast  the 
same  opinions,  perhaps  witli  this  disadvantage,  that  they 
are  a  little  more  obstinate  and  rooted  in  them,  without 
fresh  reason;  and  they  generally  come  off  with  the  loss 
of  temper  and  cliarity. 

5.  Neither  attempt  nor  hope  to  convince  a  person  of 
his  mistake  by  any  penal  methods  or  severe  usage. 
There  is  no  light  brought  into  the  mind  by  all  the  fire 
and  sword,  and  bloody  persecutions,  that  were  ever  in- 
troduced into  the  world.  One  would  think  both  the 
princes,  the  priests,  and  the  people,  the  learned  and  the 
unlearned,  the  great  and  the  mean,  should  have  all  by  this 
time  seen  the  folly  and  madness  of  seeking  to  propagate 
the  truth  by  tiie  laws  of  cruelty:  we  compel  a  beast  to  the 
yoke  by  blows,  because  tiie  ox  and  the  ass  have  no  under- 
standing: but  intellectual  powers  are  not  to  be  feUered  and 
compelled  at  this  rate.  Men  cannot  believe  what  they 
will,  nor  change  their  religion  and  tlieir  sentiments  as 
they  please:  they  may  be  made  hypocrites  by  the  forms 
of  severity,  and  constrained  to  profess  what  they  do  not 
believe;  they  may  be  forced  to  comply  with  external 
practices  and  ceremonies  contrary  to  their  own  con- 
sciences; but  this  can  never  please  God,  nor  profit  men. 

6.  In  order  to  convince  another,  you  should  always 
make  choice  of  those  arguments  that  are  best  suited  to 
his  understanding  and  capacity,  his  genius  and  temper, 
his  state,  station,  and  circumstances.  If  I  were  to  per- 
suade a  ploughman  of  the  truth  of  any  form  of  church 
government,  it  should  not  be  attempted  by  the  use  of 
Greek  and  Latin  fatljers;  but  from  tlie  word  of  God,  the 
light  of  nature,  and  the  common  reason  of  things. 

1.  Arguments  should  always  be  proposed  in  such  a 
manner  as  may  lead  the  mind  onward  to  perceive  the 
truth  in  a  clear  and  agreeable  light,  as  well  as  to  con- 
strain the  assent  by  the  power  of  reasoning.  Clear 
ideas,  in  many  cases,  are  as  useful  towards  conviction 
as  a  well  formed  and  unanswerable  syllogism. 

8.  Allow  the  person  you  desire  to  instruct  a  reasonable 


DELIVERING  FROM  ERROR.  239 

time  to  enter  into  the  force  of  your  arguments.  When 
you  liave  declared  your  own  sentiments  in  the  brightest 
manner  of  illustration,  and  enforced  them  with  the 
most  convincing  arguments,  you  are  not  to  suppose  that 
your  friend  should  be  immediately  convinced,  and  re- 
ceive the  truth:  habitude  in  a  particular  way  of  think- 
ing, as  well  as  in  most  other  things,  obtains  the  force  of 
nature;  and  you  cannot  expect  to  wean  a  man  from  his 
accustomed  errors  but  by  slow  degrees,  and  by  his  own 
assistance;  entreat  him  therefore  not  to  judge  on  the 
sudden,  nor  determine  against  you  at  once;  but  that  he 
would  please  to  review  your  scheme,  reflect  upon  your 
arguments  with  all  tlie  impartiality  he  is  capable  of, 
and  take  time  to  think  these  over  again  at  large;  at 
least,  that  he  would  be  disposed  to  hear  you  speak  yet 
further  on  this  subject  without  pain  or  aversion. 

Address  him  therefore  in  an  obliging  manner,  and 
say,  I  am  not  so  fond  as  to  think  I  have  placed  the  sub- 
ject in  such  lights  as  to  throw  you  on  a  sudden  into  a 
new  track  of  thinking,  or  to  make  you  immediately  lay 
aside  your  present  opinions  or  designs;  all  that  I  hope 
is,  that  some  hint  or  other  which  I  have  given  is  capa- 
ble of  being  improved  by  you  to  your  own  conviction, 
or  possibly  it  may  lead  you  to  such  a  train  of  reasoning, 
as  in  time  to  effect  a  change  in  your  thoughts.  Which 
hint  leads  me  to  add, — 

9.  Labour  as  much  as  possible  to  make  the  person 
you  would  teach  his  own  instructor.  Human  nature 
may  be  allured,  by  a  secret  pleasure  and  pride  in  its  own 
reasoning,  to  seem  to  find  out  by  itself  the  very  thing 
that  you  would  teach;  and  there  are  some  persons  that 
.  have  so  much  of  this  natural  bias  toward  self  rooted  in 
them,  that  they  can  never  be  convinced  of  a  mistake  by 
the  plainest  and  strongest  arguments  to  the  contrary, 
though  the  demonstration  glare  in  their  faces;  but  they 
may  be  tempted,  by  such  gentle  insinuations,  to  follow 
a  track  of  thought  which  you  propose,  till  they  have 
wound  themselves  out  of  their  own  error,  and  led 
themselves  hereby  into  your  own  opinion,  if  you  do  but 
let  it  appear  that  they  are  under  their  own  guidance 
rather  than  yours.     And  perhaps  there  is  nothing  which 


240  OF  CONVINCING  OF  TRUTH,  OK 

shows  more  dexterity  of  address  than  this  secret  influ- 
ence over  the  minds  of  others,  which  they  do  not  discern 
even  while  they  follow  it. 

10.  If  you  can  gain  the  main  point  in  question,  be 
not  very  solicitous  about  the  nicety  with  which  it  shall 
be  expressed.  Mankind  is  so  vain  a  thing,  that  it  is  not 
willing  to  derive  from  another;  and  though  it  cannot 
have  every  thing  from  itself,  yet  it  would  seem  at  least 
to  mingle  something  of  its  own  with  wliat  it  derives 
elsewhere:  therefore,  when  you  have  set  your  sentiment 
in  the  fullest  light,  and  proved  it  in  the  most  effectual 
manner,  an  opponent  will  bring  in  some  frivolous  and 
useless  distinction,  on  purpose  to  change  the  form  of 
words  in  the  question,  and  acknowledge  that  he  re- 
ceives your  propositions  in  such  a  sense,  and  in  such  a 
manner  of  expression,  though  lie  cannot  receive  it  in 
your  terms  and  phrases.  Vanillus  will  confess  he  is 
now  convinced,  that  a  man  who  behaves  well  in  the 
state  ought  not  to  be  punished  for  his  religion,  but  yet 
he  will  not  consent  to  allow  a  universal  toleration  of 
all  relinions  which  do  not  injure  the  state,  which  is  the 
proposition  T  had  been  proving.  Well,  let  Vanillus, 
therefore,  use  his  own  language;  I  am  glad  lis  is  con- 
vinced of  the  truth;  he  shall  have  leave  to  dress  it  in  his 
own  way. 

To  these  directions  I  shall  add  two  remarks  in  the 
conclusion  of  this  chapter,  which  would  not  so  properly 
fall  under  the  preceding  directions. 

I.  Remark. — When  you  have  laboured  to  instruct  a 
person  in  some  controverted  truth,  and  yet  he  retains 
some  prejudice  against  it,  so  that  he  doth  not  yield  to 
the  convincing  force  of  your  arguments,  you  may  some- 
times have  happy  success  in  convincing  him  of  that 
truth,  by  setting  him  to  read  a  weak  author  who  writes 
against  it:  a  young  reader  will  find  such  pleasure  in 
being  able  to  answer  the  arguments  of  the  opposer,  that 
he  will  drop  his  former  prejudices  against  the  truth,  and 
yield  to  the  power  and  evidence  of  your  reason.  I  confess 
this  looks  like  setting  up  one  prejudice  to  overthrow 
another;  but  where  prejudices  cannot  be  fairly  removed 


DELIVERING  FROM  ERROR  241 

by  the  dint  of  reason,  the  wisest  and  best  of  teachers 
will  sometimes  find  it  necessary  to  make  a  way  for 
reason  and  truth  to  take  place,  by  this  contrast  of  pre- 
judices. 

II.  Remark. — When  our  design  is  to  convince  a 
whole  family  or  community  of  persons  of  any  mistake, 
and  to  lead  them  into  any  truth,  we  may  justly  suppose 
there  are  various  reigninor  prejudices  among  them;  and 
therefore  it  is  not  safe  to  attempt,  nor  so  easy  to  effect 
it,  by  addressing  the  whole  number  at  once.  Such  a 
method  has  been  often  found  to  raise  a  sudden  alarm, 
and  has  produced  a  violent  opposition  even  to  the  most 
fair,  pious,  and  useful  proposal;  so  that  he  who  made  the 
motion  could  never  carry  his  point. 

We  must  therefore  first  make  as  sure  as  we  can  of 
the  most  intelligent  and  learned,  at  least  the  most  lead- 
ing persons  amongst  them,  by  addressing  them  apart 
prudently,  and  offering  proper  reasons,  till  they  are  con- 
vinced and  engaged  on  the  side  of  truth;  and  tiiese  may 
with  more  success  apply  themselves  to  others  of  the 
same  community:  yet  the  original  proposer  should  not 
neglect  to  make  a  distinct  application  to  all  the  rest,  so 
far  as  circumstances  admit. 

Where  a  thing  is  to  be  determined  by  a  number  of 
votes,  he  should  labour  to  secure  a  good  majority;  and 
then  take  care  that  tiie  most  proper  persons  should  move 
and  argue  the  matter  in  public,  lest  it  be  quashed  in 
the  very  first  proposal  by  some  prejudice  against  the 
proposer. 

So  unhappily  are  our  circumstances  situated  in  this 
world,  that  if  truth,  and  justice,  and  goodness,  could 
put  on  human  forms,  and  descend  from  heaven  to  pro- 
pose the  most  divine  and  useful  doctrines,  and  bring 
with  them  the  clearest  evidence,  and  publish  them  at 
once  to  a  multitude  whose  prejudices  are  engaged 
against  them,  the  proposal  would  be  vain  and  fruitless, 
and  would  neither  convince  nor  persuade;  so  necessary 
it  is  to  join  art  and  dexterity,  together  with  the  force 
of  reason,  to  convince  mankind  of  truth,  unless  we 
21 


242  USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  AUTHORITY 

came  furnished  with  miracles  or  omnipotence  to  create 
a  conviction.* 


CHAPTER  IV. 

OF  AUTHORITY.   OF  THE  ABUSE  OF  IT:  AND  OF  ITS  REAL 
AND  PROPER  USE  AND  SERVICE. 

The  influence  which  other  persons  have  upon  our 
opinions  is  usually  called  authority.  The  power  of  it 
is  so  great  and  widely  extensive,  that  there  is  scarce  any 
person  in  tlie  world  entirely  free  from  the  impressions 
of  it,  even  after  their  utmost  watchfulness  and  care  to 
avoid  it.  Our  parents  and  tutors,  yea,  our  very  nurses, 
determine  a  multitude  of  our  sentiments,,  our  friends, 
our  neig-libours,  the  custom  of  tlie  country  where  we 
dwell,  and  the  establislied  opinions  of  mauliind,  form 
our  belief:  the  great,  the  wise,  the  pious,  the  learned, 
and  the  ancient,  the  king,  the  priest,  and  the  philoso- 
pher, are  characters  of  mighty  efficacy  to  persuade  us  to 
receive  what  they  dictate.  These  may  be  ranked  under 
ditferent  heads  of  prejudice,  but  they  are  all  of  a  kindred 
nature,  and  may  be  reduced  to  this  one  spring  or  head 
of  authority. 

I  have  treated  of  these  particularly  in  Logic,  Part  ri. 
Chapter  iii.  Section  4;  yet,  a  few  other  remarks  occurring 
among  my  papers,  I  thought  it  not  improper  to  let  them 
find  a  place  here. 

Cicero  was  well  acquainted  with  the  unhappy  influ- 
ences of  authority,  and  complains  of  it  in  his  first  book 
De  J^atnrd  Deorum:  "  In  disputes  and  controversies 
(says  he)  it  is  not  so  much  the  authors  or  patrons  of  any 
opinion,  as  the  weight  and  force  of  argument,  which 
should  influence  the  mind.     The  authority  of  those  who 

*  Tlie  conduct  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  armed  as  they  were  with 
supernatural  powers,  in  the  gradual  openings  of  truths,  against  which 
tiie  minds  of  their  disciples  were  strongly  prejudiced,  may  not  only 
secure  such  an  address  from  the  imputation  of  dishonest  craP.but 
may  demonstrate  the  expediency,  and  in  some  cases  the  necessity,  of 
attending  to  it. 


USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  AUTHORITY.  243 

teach  is  a  frequent  hinderance  to  those  who  learn,  be- 
cause they  utterly  neglect  to  exercise  their  own  judg- 
ment, taking  for  granted  whatsoever  others  whom  they 
reverence  have  judged  for  them.  I  can  by  no  means  ap- 
prove what  we  learn  from  tlie  Pythagoreans,  that  if  any 
tiling  asserted  in  disputation  was  questioned,  they  were 
wont  to  answer,  Ipse  dixit,  that  is,  He  himself  said  so, 
meaning  Pythagoras.  So  far  did  prejudice  prevail,  that 
authority  without  reason  was  sufficient  to  determine 
disputes,  and  to  establish  truth." 

AH  human  authority,  though  it  be  never  so  ancient, 
though  it  hath  had  universal  sovereignty,  and  swayed 
all  the  learned  and  the  vulgar  world  for  some  thousands 
of  years,  yet  has  no  certain  and  undoubted  claim  to 
truth:  nor  is  it  any  violation  of  good  manners  to  enter  a 
caveat  with  due  decency  against  its  pretended  dominion. 
What  is  there  among  all  the  sciences  that  has  been 
longer  established  and  more  universally  received  ever 
since  the  days  of  Aristotle,  and  perhaps  for  ages  before 
Jie  lived,  than  this,  that  all  heavy  bodies  whatsoever 
tend  toward  the  centre  of  the  earth?  But  Sir  Isaac 
IVewton  has  found,  that  those  bulky  and  weighty  bodies, 
the  earth  and  all  the  planets,  tend  toward  the  centre  of 
the  sun,  whereby  the  authority  of  near  three  tliousand 
years  or  more  is  not  only  called  in  question,  but  actually 
refuted  and  renounced. 

Again:  Was  ever  any  thing  more  universally  agreed 
among  the  nation  of  poets  and  critics,  than  that  Homer 
and  Virgil  are  inimitable  writers  of  heroic  poems?  and 
whoever  presumed  to  attack  their  writings,  or  their 
reputation,  was  either  condemned  for  his  malice  or  de- 
rided for  his  folly.  These  ancient  authors  liave  been 
supposed  to  derive  peculiar  advantages  to  aggrandize 
their  verses  from  the  heathen  theology,  and  tliat  variety 
of  appearances  in  which  they  could  represent  tiieir  gods, 
and  mingle  tiiem  with  the  affairs  of  men.  Yet  within 
these  few  years  Sir  Richard  Blackmore  (whose  prefaces 
are  universally  esteemed  superior  in  their  kind  to  any 
of  his  poems)  has  ventured  to  pronounce  some  noble 
truths  in  that  excellent  preface  to  liis  poem  called  Alfred, 
and  has  bravely  demonstrated  there,  beyond  all  possible 


244         USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  AUTHORITY. 

exception,  that  both  Virgil  and  Homer  are  often  guilty 
of  very  gross  blunders,  indecencies,  and  sliameful  im- 
proprieties; and  that  they  were  so  far  from  deriving  any 
advantage  from  the  rabble  of  heathen  gods,  tiiat  their 
theology  almost  unavoidably  exposed  them  to  many  of 
those  bhmders;  and  tiiat  it  is  not  possible  upon  the  foot 
of  gentile  superstition  to  write  a  perfect  epic  poem: 
whereas  the  sacred  religion  of  the  Bible  would  furnish  a 
poem  with  much  more  just  and  glorious  scenes,  and  a 
nobler  machinery. 

Mr.  Dennis  also  had  made  it  appear  in  his  essays 
some  years  before,  that  there  were  no  images  so  sublime 
in  the  briirhtest  of  tiie  lieathen  writers  as  those  with 
which  we  are  furnished  in  the  poetic  parts  of  the  Holy 
Scripture;  and  Rapin,  the  French  critic,  dared  to  pro- 
fess the  same  sentiments,  notwithstanding  the  world  of 
poets  and  critics  had  so  universally  and  unanimously 
exalted  the  heathen  writers  to  the  sovereignty  for  so 
many  affes.  If  we  would  find  out  the  truth  in  many 
cases,  we  nmst  dare  to  deviate  from  the  loiifr-beaten 
track,  and  venture  to  think  with  a  just  and  unbiassed 
liberty. 

Though  it  be  necessary  to  guard  against  the  evil  in- 
fluences of  authority,  and  the  prejudices  derived  thence, 
because  it  has  introduced  thousands  of  errors  and  mis- 
chiefs into  the  world,  yet  there  are  three  eminent  and 
remarkable  cases  wherein  autliority  or  the  sentiments 
of  other  persons  must  or  will  determine  the  judgment 
and  practice  of  mankind. 

I.  Parents  are  appointed  to  judge  for  their  children 
in  their  younger  years,  and  instruct  them  what  they 
should  believe,  and  what  tliey  should  practise  in  civil 
and  religious  hfe.  This  is  a  dictate  of  nature,  and 
doubtless  it  would  have  been  so  in  a  state  of  innocence. 
It  is  impossible  that  children  should  be  capable  of  judg- 
ing for  themselves  before  their  minds  are  furnished  with 
a  competent  number  of  ideas,  before  they  are  acquainted 
with  any  principles  and  rules  of  just  judgment,  and  be- 
fore their  reason  is  grown  up  to  any  degrees  of  matu- 
rity and   proper  exercises  upon  such  subjects. 

I  will  not  say  that  a  child  ought  to  believe  nonsense 


rSE  AND  ABUSE  OP  AUTHORITY.  245 

and  impossibility  because  his  father  bids  him;  for  so  far 
as  tlie  iinpossibihty  appears  he  cannot  beheve  it:  nor 
uiil  I  say  he  ouglit  to  assent  to  all  the  false  opinions  of 
his  parents,  or  to  practise  idolatry  and  murder,  or  mis- 
chief, at  their  command;  yet  a  cliild  knows  not  any  bet- 
tor way  to  find  out  what  he  should  believe,  and  what  he 
should  practise,  before  he  can  possibly  judge  for  him- 
self, than  to  run  to  his  parents  and  receive  their  senti- 
ments and  their  directions. 

You  will  say  this  is  hard  indeed,  that  the  child  of  a 
heathen  idolator,  or  a  cruel  cannibal,  is  laid  under  a 
sort  of  necessity  by  nature  of  sinning  against  the  light 
of  nature;  I  grant  it  is  hard  indeed,  but  it  is  only  owing 
to  our  original  fall  and  apostasy:  tlie  law  of  nature  con- 
tinues as  it  was  in  innocence,  namely,  That  a  parent 
should  judge  for  his  child;  but  if  the  parent  judges  ill, 
tlie  child  is  greatly  exposed  by  it,  through  that  univer- 
sal disorder  that  is  brought  into  the  world  by  the  sin  of 
Adam  our  common  father;  and  from  the  equity  and 
goodness  of  God,  we  may  reasonably  infer,  that  the 
great  Judge  of  all  will  do  right:  he  will  balance  the  ig- 
norance and  incapacity  of  the  child  with  tiie  criminal 
nature  of  the  otiience  in  those  puerile  instances,  and  will 
not  punish  beyond  just  demerit. 

Besides,  what  could  God,  as  a  Creator,  do  better  for 
children  in  tlieir  minority,  than  to  commit  them  to  the 
care  and  instruction  of  parents?  None  are  supposed  to 
be  so  much  concerned  for  the  happiness  of  cliildren  as 
tlieir  parents  are;  therefore  it  is  the  safest  step  to  happi- 
ness, according  to  the  original  law  of  creation,  to  fol- 
low their  directions,  their  parents'  reason  acting  for 
them  before  they  had  reason  of  their  own  in  proper  ex- 
ercise; nor  indeed  is  there  any  better  general  rule  in  our 
fallen  state  by  which  cliildren  are  capable  of  being  gov- 
erned, though  in  many  particular  cases  it  may  lead  them 
far  astray  from  virtue  and  happiness. 

If  children  by  Providence  be  cast  under  some  happier 
instructions,  contrary  to  their  parents'  erroneous  opin- 
ions, I  cannot  say  it  is  the  duty  of  such  children  to  fol- 
low error  when  they  discern  it  to  be  error,  because  their 
father  believes  it:  what  I  said  before  is  to  be  interpreted 
21* 


246  USE  AND  ABUSE  OF   AUTHORITY. 

only  of  those  tliat  are  under  the  iiDmediate  care  and 
education  of  their  parents,  and  not  yet  arrived  at  yeara 
capable  of  examination.  1  know  not  how  these  can  be 
freed  from  receiving  the  dictates  of  parental  authority 
in  their  youngest  years,  except  by  immediate  or  divine 
inspiration. 

It  is  hard  to  say  at  what  exact  time  of  life  the  child  is 
exempted  from  the  sovereignty  of  parental  dictates. 
Perhaps  it  is  much  juster  to  suppose  that  this  sovereign- 
ty diminishes  by  degrees,  as  the  ciiild  grows  in  under- 
standing and  capacity,  and  is  more  and  more  capable 
of  exerting  his  own  intellectual  powers,  than  to  limit 
this  matter  by  months  and  years. 

When  childhood  and  youth  are  so  far  expired  that 
the  reasoning  faculties  are  grown  up  to  any  just  mea- 
sures of  maturity,  it  is  certain  tliat  persons  ought  to  be- 
gin to  inquire  into  the  reasons  of  their  own  faith  and 
practice  in  all  the  affairs  of  life  and  religion:  but  as  rea- 
son does  not  arrive  at  this  power  and  self-sufficiency  in 
any  single  moment  of  time,  so  there  is  no  single  mo- 
ment wiien  a  child  should  at  once  cast  ofl'all  his  former 
beliefs  and  practices;  but  by  degrees,  and  in  slow  suc- 
cession, he  should  examine  them,  as  opportunity  and 
advantage  offer,  and  either  confirm,  or  doubt  of,  or 
change  them,  according  to  the  leading  of  conscience 
and  reason,  with  all  its  advantages  of  information. 

When  we  are  arrived  at  manly  age,  there  is  no  per- 
son on  earth,  no  set  or  society  of  me.n  wliatsoever,  that 
have  power  and  authority  given  them  by  God,  the  cre- 
ator and  governor  of  the  world,  absolutely  to  dictate  to 
others  their  opinions  or  practices  in  moral  and  religious 
life.  God  has  given  every  man  reason  to  judge  for 
himself,  in  higher  or  lower  degrees.  Where  less  is  given, 
less  will  be  required.  But  we  are  justly  chargeable 
vvitli  criminal  sloth  and  misimprovement  of  the  talents 
with  which  our  Creator  has  intrusted  us,  if  we  take  all 
things  for  granted  which  others  assert,  and  believe  and 
practise  all  things  which  they  dictate  witliout  due  ex- 
amination. 

II.  Another  case  wherein  authority  must  govern  our 
assent  is  in  many  matters  of  fact.     Here  we  may  and 


USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  AUTHORITY.  247 

ought  to  be  determined  by  the  declarations  or  narratives 
of  other  men;  though  I  confess  this  is  usually  called  tes- 
timony rather  tlian  authority.  It  is  upon  this  foot  that 
every  son  or  daughter  among  mankind  are  required  to 
believe  that  such  and  such  persons  are  their  parents, 
for  they  can  never  be  informed  of  it  but  by  the  dictates 
of  others.  It  is  by  testimony  that  we  are  to  believe 
the  laws  of  our  country,  and  to  pay  all  proper  deference 
to  the  prince  and  to  magistrates  in  subordinate  degrees 
of  authority,  though  we  did  not  actually  see  them  cho- 
sen, crowned,  or  invested  with  their  title  and  character. 
It  is  by  testimony  that  we  are  necessitated  to  believe 
there  is  such  a  city  as  Canterbury  or  York,  though  per- 
haps we  have  never  been  at  either;  that  there  are  such 
persons  as  papists  at  Paris  and  Rome,  and  that  there 
are  many  sottish  and  cruel  tenets  in  their  religion.  It  is 
by  testimony  that  we  believe  that  Christianity,  and  the 
books  of  the  Bible,  have  been  faithfully  delivered  down 
to  us  through  many  generations;  that  there  was  such  a 
person  as  Clirist  our  Saviour,  that  he  wrought  miracles, 
and  died  on  the  cross,  that  he  rose  again  and  ascended 
to  heaven. 

The  authority  or  testimony  of  men,  if  they  are  wise 
and  honest,  if  they  had  full  opportunities  and  capaci- 
ties of  knowing  the  truth,  and  are  free  from  all  suspicion 
of  deceit  in  relating  it,  ought  to  sway  our  assent;  espe- 
cially when  multitudes  concur  in  the  same  testimony, 
and  when  there  are  many  other  attending  circumstan- 
ces which  raise  the  proposition  which  they  dictate  to 
the  degree  of  moral  certainty. 

But  in  this  very  case,  even  in  matters  of  fact  and  af- 
fairs of  history,  we  should  not  too  easily  give  into  all 
the  dictates  of  tradition,  and  the  pompous  pretences  to 
the  testimony  of  men,  till  we  have  fairly  examined  the 
several  things  which  are  necessary  to  make  up  credible 
testimony,  and  to  lay  a  just  foundation  for  our  belief. 
There  are  and  have  been  so  many  falsehoods  imposed 
upon  mankind  with  specious  pretences  of  eye  and  ear 
witnesses,  that  should  make  us  wisely  cautious  and 
justly  suspicious  of  reports,  where  the  concurrent  signs 
of  truth  do  not  fairly  appear,  and  especially  where  the 


248  USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  AUTHORITY. 

matter  is  of  considerable  importance.  And  the  less 
probable  the  fact  testified  is  in  itself,  the  greater  evi- 
dence justly  we  may  demand  of  the  veracity  of  that 
testimony  on  which  it  claims  to  be  admitted. 

III.  The  last  case  wherein  authority  must  govern 
us  is  when  we  are  called  to  believe  what  persons  under 
inspiration  have  dictated  to  us.  This  is  not  properly 
the  authority  of  men,  but  of  God  himself;  and  we  are 
obliged  to  believe  what  that  authority  asserts,  though 
our  reason  at  present  may  not  be  able,  any  other  way, 
to  discover  the  certainty  or  evidence  of  the  proposition; 
it  is  enough  if  our  faculty  of  reason,  in  its  best  exercise, 
can  discover  the  divine  authority  which  has  proposed  it. 
Whero  doctrines  of  divine  revelation  are  plainly  pub- 
lished, together  with  sufficient  proofs  of  their  revela- 
tion, all  mankind  are  bound  to  receive  them,  though 
they  cannot  perfectly  understand  them,  for  we  know 
that  God  is  true,  and  cannot  dictate  falsehood. 

But  if  these  pretended  dictates  are  directly  contrary 
to  the  natural  faculties  of  understanding  and  reason 
which  God  has  given  us,  we  may  be  well  assured  these 
dictates  were  never  revealed  to  us  by  God  himself. 
When  persons  are  really  influenced  by  authority  to  be- 
lieve pretended  mysteries  in  plain  opposition  to  reason, 
and  yet  pretend  reason  for  what  they  believe,  this  is  but 
a  vain  amusement. 

There  is  no  reason  whatsoever  that  can  prove  or  es- 
tablish any  authority  so  firmly,  as  to  give  it  power  to 
dictate  in  matters  of  belief  what  is  contrary  to  all  the 
dictates  of  our  reasonable  nature.  God  himself  has 
never  given  any  such  revelations:  and  I  think  it  may  be 
said  with  reverence,  he  neither  can  nor  will  do  it,  unless 
he  change  our  faculties  from  what  they  are  at  present. 
To  tell  us  we  must  believe  a  proposition  which  is  plain- 
ly contrary  to  reason,  is  to  tell  us  that  we  must  believe 
two  ideas  are  joined,  while  (if  we  attend  to  reason)  we 
plainly  see  and  know  them  to  be  disjoined. 

Wliat  could  ever  have  established  the  nonsense  of 
traiisubstantiation  in  the  world,  if  men  had  been  fixed 
in  this  great  truth,  That  God  gives  no  revelation  con- 
tradictory to  our  own  reason?    Things  may  be  above 


USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  AUTHORITY.  249 

our  reason,  that  is,  reason  may  have  but  obscure  ideas 
of  them,  or  reason  may  not  see  the  connexion  of  those 
ideas,  or  may  not  know  at  present  the  certain  and  ex- 
act manner  of  reconciHng  sucli  propositions,  either  with 
one  another  or  with  other  rational  truths,  as  I  have  ex- 
plained in  some  of  my  logical  papers:  but  when  they 
stand  directly  and  plainly  against  all  sense  and  reason, 
as  transubstantiation  does,  no  divine  authority  can  be 
pretended  to  enforce  tlieir  belief,  and  human  authority 
is  impudent  to  pretend  to  it.  Yet  this  human  authori- 
ty, in  the  popish  countries,  has  prevailed  over  millions 
of  souls,  because  they  have  abandoned  their  reason;  they 
have  given  up  the  glory  of  human  nature,  to  be  tram- 
pled upon  by  knaves,  and  so  reduced  themselves  to  the 
condition  of  brutes. 

It  is  by  tiiis  amusement  of  authority  (says  a  certain 
author)  that  a  horse  is  taught  to  obey  the  words  of  com- 
mand, a  dog  to  fetch  and  carry,  and  a  man  to  believe 
inconsistencies  and  impossibilities.  Whips  and  dun- 
geons, fire  and  the  gibbet,  and  the  solemn  terrors  of 
eternal  misery  after  this  life,  will  persuade  weak  minds 
to  believe  acrainst  their  senses,  and  in  direct  contradic- 
tion to  all  their  reasoning  powers.  A  parrot  is  taught 
to  tell  lies  with  much  more  ease  and  more  gentle  usage: 
but  none  of  all  tliese  creatures  would  serve  their  masters 
at  the  expense  of  their  liberty,  had  they  but  knowledge 
and  the  just  use  of  reason. 

I  have  mentioned  three  classes  wherein  mankind 
must  or  will  be  determined  in  their  sentiments,  by  au- 
thority; that  is  the  case  of  children  in  their  minority,  in 
regard  of  the  commands  of  tlieir  parents;  the  case  of  all 
men,  with  regard  to  universal,  and  complete,  and  suffi- 
cient testimony  of  matter  of  fact;  and  the  case  of  every 
person,  with  regard  to  the  authority  of  divine  revela- 
tion, and  of  men  divinely  inspired;  and  under  each  of 
these  I  have  given  some  such  limitations  and  cautions 
as  were  necessary.  I  proceed  now  to  mention  some 
other  cases  wlierein  we  ought  to  pay  a  great  deference 
to  the  authority  and  sentiments  of  others,  though  we 
are  not  absolutely  concluded  and  determined  by  their 
opinions. 


250         USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  AUTHORITY. 

I.  When  we  begin  to  pass  out  of  our  minority,  and 
to  judge  for  ourselves  in  matters  of  civil  and  religious 
life,  we  ought  to  pay  very  great  deference  to  the  sen- 
timents of  our  parents,  who  in  the  time  of  our  minority 
were  our  natural  guides  and  directors  in  these  matters. 
So  in  matters  of  science,  an  ignorant  and  unexperienced 
youth  should  pay  great  deference  to  the  opinions  of  his 
instructors;  and  though  he  may  justly  suspend  his  judg- 
ment in  matters  whicli  his  tutors  dictate  till  he  perceives 
sufficient  evidence  for  thejn,  yet  neither  parents  nor  tu- 
tors should  be  directly  opposed  without  great  and  most 
evident  reasons,  such  as  constrain  the  understanding  or 
conscience  of  those  concerned. 

II.  Persons  of  years  and  long  experience  in  human 
affairs,  when  they  give  advice  in  matters  of  prudence 
or  civil  conduct,  ought  to  have  a  considerable  deference 
paid  to  tfieir  authority  by  those  that  are  young  and  have 
not  seen  the  world,  for  it  is  more  probable  that  the  elder 
persons  are  in  the  right. 

III.  In  the  affairs  of  practical  godliness  there  should 
be  much  deference  paid  to  persons  of  long  standing  in 
virtue  and  piety.  I  confess,  in  the  particular  forms  and 
ceremonies  of  religion,  tliere  may  be  as  much  bigotry 
and  superstition  among  the  old  as  the  young;  but  in 
questions  of  inward  religion,  and  pure  devotion  or 
virtue,  a  man  who  has  been  long  engaged  in  the  sincere 
practice  of  these  tilings,  is  justly  presumed  to  know 
more  than  a  youth  with  all  his  ungoverned  passions, 
appetites,  and  prejudices  about  him. 

IV.  Men  in  their  several  professions  and  arts  in  which 
they  have  been  educated,  and  in  which  they  have  em- 
ployed themselves  all  their  days,  must  be  supposed  to 
have  a  greater  knowledge  and  skill  than  others;  and 
therefore  there  is  due  respect  to  be  paid  to  their  judg- 
ments in  those  matters. 

V.  In  matters  of  fact,  where  there  is  not  sufficient  testi- 
mony to  constrain  our  assent,  yet  there  ought  to  be  due 
deference  paid  to  the  narratives  of  persons  wise  and  sober, 
according  to  the  degrees  of  their  honesty,  skill,  and  op- 
portunity, to  acquaint  themselves  therewith. 

1  confess,  in  many  of  these  cases,  where  the  proposi- 


OP  MANAGING  THE,  &C.  251 

tion  is  a  mere  matter  of  speculation,  and  doth  not  neces- 
sarily draw  practice  along  with  it,  we  may  delay  our 
assent  till  better  evidence  appear;  but  where  the  matter 
is  of  a  practical  nature,  and  requires  us  to  act  one  way 
or  anotlier,  we  ought  to  pay  much  deference  to  authority 
or  testimony,  and  follow  such  probabilities  where  we 
have  no  certainty;  for  this  is  the  best  light  we  have;  and 
surely  it  is  better  to  follow  such  sort  of  guidance,  where 
we  can  have  no  better,  than  to  wander  and  fluctuate  in 
absolute  uncertainty.  It  is  not  reasonable  to  put  out 
our  candle,  and  sit  still  in  the  dark,  because  we  have 
not  the  light  of  sun-beams. 


CHAPTER  V. 

OF  TREATING  AND  MANAGING  THE  PREJUDICES  OF  MEN.* 

If  we  had  nothing  but  the  reason  of  men  to  deal  with, 
and  that  reason  were  pure  and  uncorrupted,  it  would 
then  be  a  matter  of  no  great  skill  or  labour  to  convince 
another  person  of  common  mistakes,  or  to  persuade  him 
to  assent  to  plain  and  obvious  truths.  But  alas!  man- 
kind stands  wrapped  round  in  errors,  and  entrenched 
in  prejudices;  and  every  one  of  their  opinions  is  support- 
ed and  guarded  by  something  else  besides  reason.  A 
young  bright  genius,  who  has  furnished  himself  with  a 
variety  of  truths  and  strong  arguments,  but  is  yet  unac- 
quainted with  the  world,  goes  forth  from  the  schools, 
like  a  knight-errant,  presuming  bravely  to  vanquish  the 
follies  of  men,  and  to  scatter  light  and  truth  through  all 
his  acquaintance:  but  he  meets  with  huge  giants  and 
enchanted  castles,  strong  prepossessions  of  mind,  habits, 
customs,  education,  authority,  interest,  together  with  all 
the  various  passions  of  men,  armed  and  obstinate  to  de- 
fend their  old  opinions;  and  he  is  strangely  disappointed 
m  his  generous  attempts.     He  finds  now  that  he  must 

*  For  the  nature  and  causes  of  prejudices,  and  for  the  preventing 
or  curing  of  thenj  in  ourselves,  see  the  Doctor's  excellent  system  of 
Logicj  Part  ii.  Chapter  iii.  Of  the  spnngsof  false  judgment,  or  the 
doctrine  of  prejudices. 


252  OF  MANAGING  THE 

not  trust  merely  to  the  sharpness  of  his  steel,  and  to  the 
strength  of  his  arm,  but  he  must  manage  the  weapons 
of  his  reason  with  much  dexterity  and  artifice,  with  skill 
and  address,  or  he  shall  never  be  able  to  subdue  errors, 
and  to  convince  mankind. 

Wliere  prejudices  are  strong,  there  are  these  several 
methods  to  be  practised  in  order  to  convince  persons  of 
their  mistakes,  and  make  a  way  for  truth  to  enter  into 
their  minds. 

1.  By  avoiding  the  power  and  influence  of  the  preju- 
dice without  any  direct  attack  upon  it:  and  this  is  done 
by  choosing  all  the  slow,  soft,  and  distant  methods  of 
proposing  your  own  sentiments  and  your  arguments  for 
them,  and  by  degrees  leading  the  person  step  by  step 
into  those  truths  whicli  his  prejudices  would  not  bear 
if  they  were  proposed  all  at  once. 

Perhaps  your  neighbour  is  under  the  influence  of 
superstition  and  bigotry  in  the  simplicity  of  his  soul: 
you  must  not  immediately  run  upon  him  with  violence, 
and  show  Jiim  the  absurdity  or  folly  of  his  own  opinions, 
though  you  might  be  able  to  set  them  in  a  glaring  light; 
but  you  must  rather  begin  at  a  distance,  and  establish 
his  assent  to  some  familiar  and  easy  propositions  wliich 
have  a  tendency  to  refute  his  mistakes,  and  to  confirm 
the  trutli;  and  then  silently  observe  what  impression  this 
makes  upon  him,  and  proceed  by  slow  degrees  as  he  is 
able  to  bear,  and  you  must  carry  on  the  work,  perhaps 
at  distant  seasons  of  conversation:  the  tender  or  diseased 
eye  cannot  bear  a  deluge  of  light  at  once. 

Therefore  we  are  not  to  consider  our  arguments 
merely  according  to  our  own  notions  of  their  force,  and 
from  thence  expect  the  immediate  conviction  of  others; 
but  we  should  regard  how  they  are  likely  to  be  re- 
ceived by  the  persons  we  converse  with;  and  thus  man- 
age our  reasoning,  as  the  nurse  gives  a  child  drink  by 
slow  degrees,  lest  the  infant  should  be  choked,  or  return 
it  all  back  again,  if  poured  in  too  hastily.  If  your  wine  be 
ever  so  good,  and  you  are  ever  so  liberal  in  bestowing 
it  on  your  neiglibour,  yet  if  his  bottle,  into  which  you 
attempt  to  pour  it  with  freedom,  has  a  narrow  mouth, 
you  will  sooner  overset  the  bottle  than  fill  it  with  wine. 


PREJUDICES  OP  MEN.  253 

Overhasliness  and  vehemence  in  arguing  is  often- 
times the  effect  of  pride;  il  blunts  the  poignancy  of  the 
argument,  breaks  its  force,  and  disappoints  the  end.  If 
you  were  to  convince  a  person  of  the  falsehood  of  the 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  and  you  take  up  the  con- 
secrated bread  before  hiin,  and  say — "You  may  see,  and 
taste,  and  feel,  this  is  nothing  but  bread;  therefore  while 
you  assert  that  God  commands  you  to  believe  it  is  not 
bread,  you  most  wickedly  accuse  God  of  commanding 
you  to  tell  a  lie."  This  sort  of  language  would  only 
raise  the  indignation  of  the  person  against  you,  instead 
of  making  any  impressions  upon  him.  He  will  not  so 
much  as  think  at  all  on  the  arguments  you  have  brought, 
but  he  rages  at  you  as  a  profane  wretch,  setting  up  your 
sense  and  reason  above  sacred  authority;  so  that  though 
what  you  atfirm  is  a  truth  of  great  evidence,  yet  you  lose 
the  benefit  of  your  whole  argument  by  an  ill  manage  - 
ment,  and  the  unseasonable  use  of  it. 

II.  We  may  expressly  allow  and  indulge  those  preju- 
dices for  a  season  which  seem  to  stand  against  the  truth, 
and  endeavour  to  introduce  the  truth  by  degrees,  while 
those  prejudices  are  expressly  allowed,  till  by  degrees 
the  advanced  truth  may  of  itself  wear  out  the  prejudice. 
Thus  God  himself  dealt  with  his  own  people  the  Jews 
after  tlie  resurrection  of  Christ;  for  tiiough  from  the 
following  days  of  Pentecost,  vvlien  the  Gospel  was  pro- 
claimed and  confirmed  at  Jerusalem,  the  Jewish  cere- 
monies began  to  be  void  and  ineffectual  for  any  divine 
purpose,  yet  the  Jews  who  received  Christ  tlie  Mepsiah 
were  peruiitted  to  circumcise  their  cliildren,  and  to  prac- 
tise many  Levitical  forms,  till  that  constitution,  wiiich 
then  waxed  old,  should  in  time  vanish  away. 

Where  the  prejudices  of  mankind  cannot  l3e  conquered 
at  once,  but  they  will  rise  up  in  arms  against  the  evi- 
dence of  truth,  there  we  must  make  some  allowances, 
and  yield  to  them  for  the  present,  as  far  as  we  can  safely 
do  it  without  real  injury  to  truth:  and  if  we  would  have 
any  success  in  our  endeavours  to  convince  tlie  world, 
we  must  practise  this  complaisance  for  the  benefit  of 
mankind. 

Take  a  student  who  has  deeply  imbibed  the  princi- 
22 


254  OF  MANAGING  THE 

pies  of  the  Peripatetics,  and  imagines  certain  imma- 
terial beings  called  substantial  forms  to  inhabit  every 
herb,  flower,  mineral,  metal,  fire,  water,  &c.  and  to  be 
the  spring  of  all  its  properties  and  operations;  or  take  a 
Platonist,  who  believes  an  aniina  mundi,  a  universal 
soul  of  the  world  to  pervade  all  bodies,  to  act  in  and  by 
them  according  to  their  nature,  and  indeed  to  give  them 
their  nature  and  their  special  powers;  perhaps  it  may 
be  very  hard  to  convince  these  persons  by  argument, 
and  constrain  them  to  yield  up  these  fancies.  Well 
then,  let  the  one  believe  his  universal  soul,  and  the  other 
go  on  with  his  notion  of  substantial  forms,  and  at  the 
same  time  leach  them  how  by  certain  original  laws  of 
motion,  and  the  various  sizes,  shapes,  and  situations  of 
the  parts  of  matter,  allowing  a  continued  divine  con- 
course in  and  with  all,  the  several  appearances  in  nature 
may  be  solved,  and  the  variety  of  effects  produced,  ac- 
cording to  the  corpuscular  philosophy  improved  by 
Descartes,  Mr.  Boyle,  and  Sir  Isaac  Newton;  and  when 
they  have  attained  a  degree  of  skill  in  this  science,  they 
will  see  these  airy  notions  of  theirs,  these  imaginary  pow 
ers,  to  be  so  useless  and  unnecessary,  that  they  will  drop 
them  of  their  own  accord:  the  Peripatetic  forms  will 
vanish  from  the  mind  like  a  dream,  and  the  Platonic 
soul  of  tlie  world  will  expire. 

Or  suppose  a  young  philosopher,  under  a  powerful 
persuasion  that  there  is  nothing  but  what  has  three 
dimensions,  lengtli,  breadth,  and  thickness,  and  conse- 
quently that  every  finite  being  has  a  figure  or  shape 
(for  shape  is  but  the  term  and  boundary  of  dimension:) 
suppose  this  person,  through  the  long  prejudices  of  sense 
and  imagination,  cannot  be  easily  brought  to  conceive 
of  a  spirit  or  a  tliinking  being  without  shape  and  dimen- 
sions; let  him  then  continue  to  conceive  a  spirit  with 
dimensions;  but  be  sure  in  all  his  conceptions  to  retain 
the  idea  of  cogitation,  or  a  power  of  thinking,  and  thus 
proceed  to  philosophize  upon  the  subject.  Perhaps  in  a 
little  time  he  will  find  that  length,  breadth,  and  shape 
have  no  share  in  any  of  the  actions  of  a  spirit,  and  that 
he  can  manifest  all  the  properties  and  relatious  of  such 
a  being,  with  all  its  operations  of  sensation,  volition, 


PREJUDICES  OF  MEN.  265 

&c.  to  be  as  well  performed  without  the  use  of  this  sup- 
posed shape  or  these  dimensions;  and  that  all  these 
operations  and  these  attributes  may  be  ascribed  to  a 
spirit  considered  merely  as  a  power  of  thinking.  And 
when  he  further  conceives  that  God,  the  infinite  Spirit, 
is  an  almigiity,  self-consistent,  tliinking  power,  without 
shape  and  dimensions  of  length,  breadth,  and  depth,  he 
may  tlien  suppose  the  human  spirit  may  be  an  inferior 
self-subsisting'  power  of  thought;  and  he  may  be  inclined 
to  drop  tlie  ideas  of  dimension  and  figure  by  degrees, 
when  he  sees  and  is  convinced  they  do  nothing  toward 
thinking,  nor  are  they  necessary  to  assist  or  explain  the 
operations  or  properties  of  a  spirit. 

I  may  give  another  instance  of  the  same  practice, 
where  there  is  a  prejudicate  fondness  of  particular  words 
and  plirases.  Suppose  a  man  is  educated  in  an  unhap- 
py form  of  speech,  whereby  he  explains  some  great  doc- 
trine of  the  gospel,  and  by  the  means  of  tins  phrase  he 
has  imbibed  a  very  false  idea  of  that  doctrine:  yet  he  is 
so  bigoted  to  his  form  of  words,  that  he  imagines  if 
those  words  are  omitted,  the  doctrine  is  lost.  Now  if  I 
cannot  possibly  persuade  him  to  part  with  his  improper 
terms,  I  will  indulge  them  a  little,  and  try  to  explain 
them  in  a  scriptural  sense,  rather  than  let  him  go  on  in  his 
mistaken  ideas. 

Credonius  believes  that  Christ  descended  into  hell:  I 
think  tlie  word  hell,  as  now  commonly  understood,  is 
very  improper  here;  but  since  the  bulk  of  Christians, 
and  Credonius  amongst  them,  will  by  no  means  part 
witli  the  word  out  of  tlieir  English  creed,  1  will  explain 
the  word  hell  to  signify  the  state  of  the  dead,  or  the  sepa- 
rate state  of  souls;  and  thus  lead  my  friend  into  more 
just  ideas  of  the  truth,  namely,  that  the  soul  of  Christ 
existed  three  days  in  the  state  of  separation  from  his 
body,  or  was  in  the  invisible  world,  which  might  be  ori- 
ginally called  hell  in  English,  as  well  as  hades  in  Greek. 

Anilla  has  been  bred  a  pap  st  all  her  days,  and  though 
she  does  not  know  much  of  religion,  yet  she  resolves 
never  to  part  from  the  Roman  catholic  faith,  and  is  ob- 
stinately bent  against  a  change.  Now  I  cannot  think  it 
unlawful  to  teach  her  the  true  Christian,  that  is,  the 


256  OF  MANAGING  THE 

protestant  religion,  out  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 
and  show  her  that  the  same  doctrine  is  contained  in  the 
catholic  epistles  of  St.  Peter,  James,  and  Jude:  and  thus 
let  her  Jive  and  die  a  good  Christian  in  the  belief  of  the 
religion  1  teach  her  out  of  the  New  Testament,  while 
she  imagines  she  is  a  Roman  catholic  still,  because  she 
finds  tlie  doctrines  she  is  taught  in  the  catholic  epistles 
and  in  that  to  tiie  Romans. 

I  grant  it  is  most  proper  there  should  be  different 
words  (as  far  as  possible)  applied  to  different  ideas;  and 
this  rule  should  never  be  dispensed  with,  if  we  had  to 
do  only  with  the  reason  of  mankind;  but  their  various 
prejudices  and  zeal  for  some  party  phrases  sometimes 
make  it  necessary  that  we  should  lead  them  into  truth 
under  the  covert  of  their  own  beloved  forms  of  speech, 
rather  than  permit  them  to  live  and  die  obstinate  and 
unconvincible  m  any  dangerous  mistake:  whereas  an 
attempt  to  deprive  them  of  their  old  established  words 
would  raise  such  a  tumult  within  Ihem,  as  to  render  their 
conviction  hopeless. 

III.  Sometimes  we  may  make  use  of  the  very  preju- 
dices under  which  a  person  labours  in  order  to  convince 
him  of  some  particular  truth,  and  argue  with  him  upon 
his  own  professed  principles  as  though  they  were  true. 
This  is  called  argumentum  ad  Iw7ninem^  and  is  another 
way  of  dealing  with  the  prejudices  of  men. 

Suppose  a  Jew  lies  sick  of  a  fever,  and  is  forbid  flesh 
by  his  physician;  but  hearing  that  rabbits  were  provided 
for  the  dinner  of  the  family,  desired  earnestly  to  eat  of 
them;  and  suppose  he  became  impatient  because  his 
physician  did  not  permit  him,  and  he  insisted  upon  it 
that  it  could  do  him  no  hurt.  Surely  rather  than  let 
him  persist  in  that  fancy  and  that  desire,  to  the  danger 
of  his  life,  1  would  tell  him  that  those  animals  were 
strangled,  which  sort  of  food  was  forbidden  by  tlie  Jew- 
ish law,  though  I  myself  may  believe  that  law  is  now 
abolished. 

In  the  same  manner  was  Tenerilla  persuaded  to  let 
Damon  her  husband  prosecute  a  thief  who  broke  open 
their  house  on  a  Sunday.  At  first  she  abhorred  the 
thoughts  of  it,  and  refused  it  utterly,  because,  if  the 


PREJUDICES  OF  MEN.  257 

thief  were  condemned,  according  to  the  Enghsh  law  he 
must  be  hanged,  whereas  (said  she)  the  law  of  God,  in 
the  writings  of  Moses,  doth  not  appoint  death  to  be  the 
punishment  of  such  criminals,  but  tells  us,  that  a  thief 
should  be  sold  for  his  theft. — Exod.  xxii.  3.  But  when 
Damon  could  no  otherwise  convince  her  that  the  thief 
ought  to  be  prosecuted,  he  put  her  in  mind  that  the 
theft  was  committed  on  Sunday  morning:  now  the  same 
law  of  Moses  requires  that  the  sabbath-breaker  shall 
surely  be  put  to  deatii. — Exod.  xxxi.  15;  Numb.  xv.  35. 
This  argument  prevailed  with  Tcnerilla,  and  she  con- 
sented to  the  prosecution. 

Encrates  used  the  same  means  ot  conviction  when 
he  saw  a  Mahometan  drink  wine  to  excess,  and  heard 
him  maintain  the  lawfulness  and  pleasure  of  drunken- 
ness; Encrates  reminded  him  that  his  own  prophet  Ma- 
homet had  utterly  forbidden  all  wine  to  his  followers, 
and  tlie  good  man  restrained  his  vicious  appetite  by  this 
superstition,  when  he  could  no  otherwise  convince  him 
that  drunkenness  was  unlawful,  nor  withhold  him  from 
excess. 

When  we  find  any  person  obstinately  persisting  in  a 
mistake  in  opposition  to  all  reason,  especially  if  the 
mistake  be  very  injurious  or  pernicious,  and  we  know 
this  person  will  hearken  to  the  sentiment  or  authority 
oi^  some  favourite  name,  it  is  needful  sometimes  to  use 
the  opinion  and  authority  of  that  favourite  person,  since 
tiiat  is  likely  to  be  regarded  much  more  than  reason.  I 
confess  I  am  almost  ashamed  to  speak  of  using  any  influ- 
ence of  autliority  while  I  would  teach  the  art  of  reasoning. 
But  in  some  cases  it  is  biitter  that  poor,  silly,  perverse, 
obstinate  creatures  should  be  persuaded  to  judge  and  act 
ariglit,  by  a  veneration  for  the  sense  of  others,  than  to 
be  left  to  wander  in  pernicious  errors,  and  continue 
deaf  to  all  argument,  and  blind  to  all  evidence.  They 
are  but  children  of  a  larger  size;  and  since  they  persist 
all  their  lives  in  their  mmority,  and  reject  all  true  rea- 
soning, surely  we  may  try  to  pereuade  them  to  practise 
what  is  for  their  own  interest  by  such  childish  reasons 
as  they  will  hearken  lo:  we  may  overawe  them  from 
pursuing  their  own  ruin  by  the  terrors  of  a  solemn  sha- 
22* 


258  OF  MANAGING  THE 

dow,  or  allure  them  by  a  sugar-plum  to  their  own  hap- 
piness. 

But  after  all,  we  must  conclude  that  wheresoever  it 
can  be  done,  it  is  best  to  remove  and  root  out  those 
prejudices  wiiich  obstruct  the  entrance  of  truth  into  the 
mind,  rather  tlian  to  palliate,  humour,  or  indulge  tliem; 
and  sometimes  this  must  necessarily  be  done  before  you 
can  make  a  person  part  with  some  beloved  error,  and 
lead  him  into  better  sentiments. 

Suppose  you  would  convince  a  gamester  that  gaming 
is  not  a  lawful  calling  or  business  of  life  to  maintain 
one's  self  by  it,  and  you  make  use  of  this  argument, 
namely,  "  That  which  doth  not  admit  us  to  ask  the 
blessing  of  God  that  we  may  get  gain  by  it,  cannot  be 
a  lawful  employment;  but  we  cannot  ask  the  blessing  of 
God  on  ga.ming,  therefore,"  &c.  The  minor  is  proved 
thus:  "  We  cannot  pray  that  our  neighbour  may  lose; 
this  is  contrary  to  the  rule  of  seeking  our  neiglihour's 
welfare,  and  loving  him  as  ourselves;  this  is  vvisiiing 
mischief  to  our  neighbour.  But  in  gaming  we  can  gain 
but  just  so  much  as  our  neighbour  loses:  therefore  in 
gaming  we  cannot  pray  for  tlie  blessing  of  God  that  we 
may  gain  by  it." 

Perhaps  the  gamester  shrugs  and  winces,  turns  and 
twists  tiie  argument  every  way,  but  he  cannot  fairly 
answer  it,  yet  he  will  patcli  up  an  answer  to  satisfy 
himself,  and  will  never  yield  to  the  conviction,  because 
he  feels  so  much  of  the  sweet  influence  of  gaming, 
either  toward  the  g-ratification  of  his  avarice,  or  the  sup- 
port of  his  expenses.  Thur.  he  is  under  a  strong  preju- 
dice in  favour  of  it,  and  is  not  easily  convinced. 

Your  first  work  therefore  must  be  to  lead  him  by  de- 
grees to  separate  tlie  thoughts  of  his  own  interest  from 
the  argument,  and  show  him  that  our  own  temporal  in- 
terests, our  livelihood,  or  our  loss,  hath  nothing  to  do  to 
determine  this  point  in  opposition  to  the  plain  reason 
of  things,  and  that  he  ought  to  put  that  consideration 
quite  out  of  the  question,  if  he  would  be  honest  and 
sincere  in  his  search  after  truth  or  duty;  and  that  he 
must  be  contented  to  hearken  to  the  voice  of  reason 
and    truth,  even  though  it  should  run  counter  to  his 


PREJUDICES  OF  MEN.  259 

secular  interest.  When  this  is  done,  then  an  argument 
may  carry  some  weight  or  force  with  it  towards  his  con- 
viction. 

In  like  manner  if  the  question  were,  whether  Matris- 
sa  ought  to  expose  herself  and  her  other  children  to  pov- 
erty and  misery  in  order  to  support  the  extravagances 
of  a  favourite  son?  Perhaps  the  mother  can  hear  no  ar- 
gument against  it;  she  feels  no  conviction  in  the  most 
cogent  reasonings,  so  close  do  her  fond  prejudices  stick 
to  her  heart.  The  first  business  here  is  to  remove  this 
prejudice.  Ask  her  therefore,  Whether  it  is  not  a  pa- 
rentis duty  to  love  all  her  children  so  as  to  provide  for 
their  welfare?  Whetlier  duty  to  God  and  her  family 
ought  not  to  regulate  Iier  love  to  a  favourite?  Whether 
her  neiglibour  Floris  did  well  in  dressing  up  her  daugh- 
ters with  expensive  gaudery,  and  neglecting  the  educa- 
tion of  lier  son  till  she  saw  his  ruin?  Perhaps  by  this 
method  she  may  be  brought  to  see  that  peculiar  fond- 
ness for  one  child  should  have  no  weight  or  force  in  de- 
termining the  judgment  in  opposition  to  plain  duty:  and 
she  may  then  give  herself  up  to  conviction  in  her  own 
case,  and  to  the  evidence  of  truth,  and  thus  correct  her 
mistaken  practice. 

Suppose  you  would  convert  Rominda  from  popery, 
and  you  set  all  the  errors,  absurdities,  and  superstitions 
of  that  church  before  her  in  the  most  glaring  evidence: 
she  holds  them  fast  still,  and  cannot  part  with  them, 
for  she  hath  a  most  sacred  reverence  for  the  fiith  and 
the  church  of  her  ancestors,  and  cannot  imagine  that 
they  were  in  the  wrong.  The  first  labour  must  be 
therefore  to  convince  her  that  our  ancestors  were  falli- 
ble creatures;  that  we  may  part  with  their  faith  without 
any  dishonour  done  to  them;  that  all  persons  must 
choose  their  religion  for  themselves;  that  we  must  an- 
swer for  ourselves  in  the  great  day  of  judgment,  and 
not  we  for  our  parents,  nor  they  for  us;  that  Christiani- 
ty itself  liad  never  been  received  by  her  ancestors  in 
this  nation,  if  they  had  persisted  always  in  the  religion 
of  their  parents,  for  they  were  all  heathens.  And  when 
she  has  by  these  methods  of  reasoning  been  persuaded 
that  she  is  not  bound  always  to  cleave  to  the  religion 


260  OF  INSTRUCTION 

of  her  parents,  she  may  then  receive  an  easier  convic- 
tion of  the  errors  of  Rome.* 


CHAPTER  VI. 

OP  INSTRUCTION  BY  PREACHING. 

Section  I. 
Wisdom  better  than  Learning  in  the  Pulpit. 

Tyro  is  a  young  preacher  just  come  from  the  schools 
of  logic  and  divinity,  and  advanced  to  the  pulpit;  he 
was  counted  a  smart  youngster  in  the  academy  for  ana- 
lysing a  proposition,  and  is  full  even  to  the  brim  with 
the  terms  of  his  art  in  learning.  When  he  has  read 
his  text,  after  a  short  flourish  of  introduction,  he  tells 
you  in  how  many  senses  the  cliief  word  is  taken,  first 
among  Greek  heathen  writers,  and  then  in  tlie  New 
Testament,  he  cites  all  the  chapters  and  verses  exactly, 
and  endeavours  to  make  you  understand  many  a  text 
before  he  comes  to  let  you  know  fully  what  he  means 
by  his  own. 

He  find?  these  things  at  large  in  the  critics  which  he 
has  consulted,  where  this  sort  of  work  is  necessary  and 
beautiful,  and  therefore  he  imagines  it  will  become  his 
sermon  well.  Then  he  informs  you  very  learnedly  of 
the  various  false  expositions  which  have  been  given  by 
divines  and  commentators  on  this  part  of  scripture,  and 

*  But  perhaps  of  all  these  different  methods  of  curing  prejudices 
none  can  be  practised  with  greater  pleasure  to  a  wise  and  good 
man,  or  with  greater  success,  where  success  is  most  desirable,  than 
attempting:  to  turn  the  attention  of  well  meaning  people  from  some 
point  in  whicli  prejudice  prevails,  to  some  other  of  greater  impor- 
tance, and  fixing  their  thoughts  and  heart  on  some  great  truth  which 
they  allow,  and  which  leads  into  consequences  contrary  to  some  other 
notion  which  they  espouse  and  retain.  By  this  means  they  may 
be  led  to  forget  their  errors  while  attentive  to  opposite  truth,  and  in 
proportion  to  the  degree  in  which  their  minds  ojjcn,  and  their  tem- 
pers grow  more  generous  and  virtuous,  may  be  induced  to  resign  it. 
And  surely  nothing  can  give  a  benevolent  mind  more  satisfaction 
than  to  improve  his  neighbour  iu  knowledge  and  in  goodness  at  the 
Game  time. 


BY  PREACHING.  2G1 

it  may  be  the  reasons  of  each  of  them  too;  and  he  re- 
futes them  with  much  zeal  and  contempt.  Having  thus 
cleared  his  way,  he  fixes  upon  the  exposition  which  bis 
judgment  best  approves,  and  dwells,  generally,  five  or 
ten  minutes  upon  the  arguments  to  confirm  it:  and  tfiis 
he  docs  not  only  in  texts  of  darkness  and  difficulty,  but 
even  when  scarce  a  ciiild  could  doubt  of  his  meaning. 

This  grammatical  exercise  being  performed,  he  applies 
himself  to  his  logic.  The  text  is  divided  and  subdivi- 
ded into  many  little  pieces;  he  points  you  precisely  to 
the  subject  and  predicate,  brings  you  acquainted  with 
the  agent  and  the  object,  shows  you  all  the  properties 
and  the  accidents  which  attend  it,  and  would  fain  make 
you  understand  the  matter  and  form  of  it  as  well  as  he 
does  himself  When  he  has  thus  done,  two-thirds  of 
the  hour  is  spent,  and  his  hearers  are  quite  tired;  then 
he  begins  to  draw  near  to  his  doctrine  or  grand  theme 
of  discourse,  and  having  told  the  audience  with  great 
formality  and  exactness  in  what  method  he  shall  man- 
age it,  he  names  you  one  or  two  particulars  under  the 
first  general  head;  and  by  this  time  finds  it  necessary  to 
add,  *'  He  intended  indeed  to  have  been  larger  in  the  il- 
lustration of  his  subject,  and  he  should  have  given  you 
some  reasons  for  the  doctrine,  but  he  is  sorry  that  he  is 
prevented:  and  then  he  designed  also  to  have  brought 
it  down  to  the  conscience  of  every  man  by  a  warm  ad- 
dress, but  his  time  being  gone  he  must  break  off."  He 
hurries  over  a  hint  or  two  which  should  have  been 
wrought  up  into  exhortation  or  instruction,  but  all  in 
great  haste,  and  thus  concludes  his  work.  The  obsti- 
nate and  careless  sinner  goes  away  unawakened,  un- 
convinced; and  the  mourning  soul  departs  uncomfort- 
ed:  the  unbeliever  is  not  led  to  faith  in  the  gospel,  nor 
the  immoral  wretcii  to  hate  or  forsake  his  iniquities:  the 
hypocrite  and  the  man  of  sincerity  are  both  unedified, 
because  the  preacher  had  not  time.  In  short,  he  hath  fin- 
ished his  work,  and  hath  done  nothing. 

When  I  hear  this  man  preach  it  brings  to  my  remem- 
brance the  account  which  I  have  heard  concerning  the 
Czar  of  Muscovy,  the  first  time  his  army  besieged  a 
town  in  Livonia:  he  was  then  just  come  from  his  trav- 


262  OF  INSTRUCTION 

els  in  Great  Britain,  where  he  and  his  ministers  of  state 
had  learned  the  mathematics  of  an  old  acquaintance  of 
mine:  the  Czar  took  great  care  to  begin  the  siege  in 
form;  he  drew  all  tlie  lines  of  circumvallation  and  con- 
travallation  according  to  the  rules  of  art;  but  he  was  so 
tedious  and  so  exact  in  these  mathematical  performan- 
ces, that  the  season  was  spent,  he  was  forced  to  break 
up  the  siege,  and  retire  without  any  execution  done 
upon  the  town. 

Ergates  is  another  sort  of  preacher,  a  workman  that 
need  not  be  ashamed:  he  had  in  his  younger  days  but 
few  of  these  learned  vanities,  and  age  and  experience 
have  now  worn  them  all  off.  He  preaches  like  a  man 
who  watches  for  our  souls,  as  one  that  must  give  an 
account;  lie  passes  over  lesser  matters  with  speed,  and 
pursues  his  great  design,  namely,  to  save  himself  and 
them  that  hear  him,  1  Tim.  iv.  16,  and  by  following 
this  advice  of  St.  Paul,  he  happily  complies  with  that 
great  and  natural  rule  of  Horace,  always  to  make  haste 
towards  the  most  valuable  end: — 

Semper  ad  eventutn  festinat. — 

He  never  affects  to  choose  a  very  obscure  text,  lest  he 
should  waste  too  much  of  the  hour  in  explaining  the  lit- 
eral sense  of  it:  he  reserves  all  those  obscurities  till  they 
come  in  course  at  his  seasons  of  public  exposition.  For 
it  is  his  opinion,  that  preacliing  the  gospel  for  the  salva- 
tion of  men  carries  in  it  a  little  different  idea  from  a 
learned  and  critical  exposition  of  the  difficult  texts  of 
scripture. 

He  knows  well  how  to  use  his  logic  in  his  composi- 
tions; but  he  calls  no  part  of  the  words  by  its  logical 
name,  if  there  be  any  vulgar  name  that  answers  it:  read- 
ing and  meditation  have  furnished  him  with  extensive 
views  of  his  subject,  and  his  own  good  sense  hath  taught 
him  to  give  sufficient  reasons  for  every  thing  he  asserts; 
but  he  never  uses  one  of  them  till  a  proof  is  needful. 
He  is  acquainted  with  the  mistaken  glosses  of  exposi- 
tors, but  he  thinks  it  needless  to  acquaint  his  hearers 
with  them,  unless  there  be  evident  danger  that  they 
might  r"in  into  the  same  mistake.     He  understands  very 


BY  PREACHING.  263 

well  what  his  subject  is  not,  as  well  as  what  it  is;  but 
when  he  would  explain  it  to  you  he  never  says,  first, 
negatiA'ely,  unless  some  remarkable  error  is  at  hand,  and 
which  his  hearers  may  easily  fall  into,  for  want  of  such 
a  caution. 

Thus,  in  five  or  ten  minutes  at  the  most;  he  makes 
his  way  plain  to  the  proposition  or  theme  on  which  he 
designs  to  discourse;  and  being  so  wise  as  to  know  well 
what  to  say  and  what  to  leave  out,  he  proportions  every 
part  of  his  work  to  his  time;  he  enlarges  a  little  upon 
the  subject  by  way  of  illustration,  till  the  truth  becomes 
evident  and  intelligible  to  the  weakest  of  his  hearers; 
then  he  confirms  the  point  with  a  few  convincing  argu- 
ments where  the  matter  requires  it,  and  makes  haste  to 
turn  the  doctrine  into  use  and  improvement.  Thus  the 
ignorant  are  instructed,  and  the  growing  Christians  are 
established  and  improved:  tlie  stupid  sinner  is  loudly 
awakened,  and  the  mourning  soul  receives  consolation: 
the  unbeliever  is  led  to  trust  in  Christ  and  his  Gospel, 
and  the  impenitent  and  immoral  are  convinced  and  sof- 
tened, are  melted  and  reformed.  The  inward  voice  of 
the  holy  Spirit  joins  v.'ith  the  voice  of  the  minister;  the 
good  man  and  the  hypocrite  have  their  proper  portions 
assigned  them;  and  tlie  work  of  the  Lord  prospers  in  his 
hand. 

This  is  the  usual  course  and  manner  of  his  ministry; 
this  method  being  natural,  plain,  and  easy,  he  casts 
many  of  his  discourses  into  this  form;  but  he  is  no  slave 
to  forms  and  methods  of  any  kind;  he  makes  the  nature 
of  his  subject,  and  the  necessity  of  his  hearers,  the  great 
rule  to  direct  hiin  in  what  method  lie  shall  choose  in 
every  sermon,  that  he  may  the  better  enlighten,  con- 
vince, and  persuade.  Ergatos  well  knows  that  wliere 
the  subject  itself  is  entirely  practical,  he  has  no  need 
of  the  formality  of  long  uses  and  exhortations:  he  knows 
that  practice  is  the  chief  design  of  doctrine;  therefore 
he  bestows  most  of  his  labour  upon  this  part  of  hig  of- 
fice, and  intermingles  much  of  the  pathetic  under  every 
particular.  Yet  he  wisely  observes  the  special  dangers 
of  his  flock,  and  the  errors  of  the  times  he  lives  in,  and 
now  and  then  (though  very  seldom)  he  thinks  it  necea- 


264  OF  INSTRUCTION 

sary  to  spend  almost  a  whole  discourse  in  mere  doctri- 
nal articles. — Upon  such  an  occasion  he  thinks  it  proper 
to  take  up  a  little  larger  part  of  his  hour  in  explaining 
and  confirming  the  sense  of  his  text,  and  brings  it  down 
to  the  understanding  of  a  child. 

At  another  time  perhaps  he  particularly  designs  vo 
entertain  the  few  learned  and  polite  among  his  auditors, 
and  that  with  this  view,  that  he  may  ingratiate  his  dis- 
courses with  their  ears,  and  ma)'  so  far  gratify  their  cu- 
riosity in  this  part  of  his  sermon  as  to  give  an  easier  en- 
trance for  the  more  plain,  necessary,  and  important  parts 
of  it  into  their  hearts.  Then  he  aims  at,  and  he  readies 
the  sublime,  and  furnishes  out  an  entertainment  for 
tiie  finest  taste;  but  he  scarce  ever  finishes  his  sermon 
without  compassion  to  the  unlearned,  and  an  address 
that  may  reach  their  consciences  with  words  of  salvation. 

I  have  observed  him  sometimes,  after  a  learned  dis- 
course, come  down  from  the  pulpit  as  a  man  ashamed 
and  quite  out  of  countenance:  he  has  blushed,  and  com- 
plained to  his  intimate  friends,  lest  he  should  be  thought 
to  have  preached  himself,  and  not  Christ  Jesus  his  Lord; 
he  has  been  ready  to  wish  he  had  entertained  the  audi- 
ence in  a  more  unlearned  manner,  and  on  a  more  vul- 
gar subject,  lest  tiie  servants  and  the  labourers  and 
tradesmen  there  should  reap  no  advantage  to  their  souls, 
and  the  important  hour  of  worship  should  be  lost  as  to 
their  improvement.  Well  he  knows,  and  keeps  it  upon 
his  heart,  that  the  middle  and  the  lower  ranks  of  man- 
kind, and  people  of  unlettered  character,  make  up  the 
greater  part  of  the  assembly;  therefore  he  is  ever  seek- 
ing how  to  adapt  his  thoughts  and  his  language,  and  far 
the  greater  part  of  all  his  ministrations,  to  the  instruc- 
tion and  profit  of  persons  of  common  rank  and  capacity; 
it  is  in  the  midst  of  these  that  he  hopes  to  find  his  tri- 
umph, his  joy,  and  crown,  in  the  last  great  day,  for  not 
many  wise,  not  man}"^  noble  are  called. 

There  is  so  much  spirit  and  beauty  in  his  common 
conversation,  that  it  is  sought  and  desired  by  the  ingeni- 
ous men  of  his  age;  but  he  carries  a  severe  guard  of 
piety  always  about  him,  that  tempers  the  pleasiuit  aii 
of  his  discourse,  even  in  his  brightest  and  freest  hours; 


BY  PREACHING.  265 

and  before  he  leaves  the  place  (if  possible)  he  will  leave 
something  of  the  savour  of  heaven  there:  in  the  parlour 
he  carries  on  the  design  of  the  pulpit,  but  in  so  elegant 
a  manner,  that  it  charms  the  company,  and  gives  not 
the  least  occasion  for  censure. 

His  polite  acquaintance  will  sometimes  rally  him  for 
talking  so  plainly  in  his  sermons,  and  sinking  his  good 
sense  to  so  low  a  level:  but  Ergates  is  bold  to  tell  the 
gayest  of  them, — "  Our  public  business,  my  friend,  is 
chiefly  with  the  weak  and  the  ignorant;  that  is,  the  bulk 
of  mankind:  The  poor  receive  the  gospel:  The  mechan- 
ics and  day-labourers,  the  women  and  the  children  of 
my  assembly  have  souls  to  be  saved:  I  will  imitate  my 
blessed  Redeemer  in  preaching  the  gospel  to  the  poor, 
and  learn  of  St.  Paul  to  become  all  things  to  all  men, 
that  I  may  win  souls,  and  lead  many  sinners  to  heaven 
by  repentance,  faith,  and  holiness." 

Sect.  II.  A  Branching  Sermon. 
I  HAVE  always  thought  it  a  mistake  in  the  preacher 
to  mince  his  text  or  his  subject  too  small,  by  a  great 
number  of  subdivisions;  for  it  occasions  great  confusion 
to  the  understandings  of  the  unlearned.  Where  a  man 
divides  his  matter  into  more  general,  less  general,  spe- 
cial, and  more  particular  heads,  he  is  under  a  necessity 
sometimes  of  saying,  firstly  or  secondly,  two  or  three 
times  together,  which  the  learned  may  observe;  but  the 
greater  part  of  the  auditory,  not  knowing  the  analysis, 
cannot  so  n)uch  as  take  it  into  their  minds,  and  much 
less  treasure  up  in  tlieir  memories,  in  a  just  and  regular 
order;  and  when  such  liearers  are  desired  to  give  some 
account  of  the  sermon,  they  throw  the  thirdlies  and 
secondlies  into  heaps,  and  make  very  confused  work  in 
a  rehearsal,  by  intermingling  the  general  and  the  spe- 
cial heads.  In  writing  a  large  discourse  this  is  much 
more  tolerable,*  but  in  preaching  it  is  less  profitable  and 
more  intrit^te  and  offensive. 

*  Especially  as  words  may  be  used  to  number  the  generals  and  fig. 
ures  of  different  kinds  and  forms  to  marshal  the  primary  or  secon- 
dary ranks  of  particulars  under  them. 

23 


286  OF  INSTRUCTION 

It  is  as  vain  an  afFectalion  also  to  draw  out  a  long 
rank  of  particulars  in  the  same  sermon  under  any  one 
general,  and  run  up  the  number  of  them  to  eighteenthly 
and  seven-and-twentiethly.  Men  that  take  delight  in 
this  sort  of  work,  will  cut  out  all  their  senses  into 
shreds;  and  every  thing  tiiat  they  can  say  upon  any  topic 
shall  make  a  new  particular. 

This  sort  of  folly  and  mistaken  conduct  appears 
weekly  in  Polyramus's  lectures,  and  renders  all  liis  dis- 
courses lean  and  insipid.  Whether  it  proceeds  from  a 
mere  barrenness  of  thought  and  native  dryness  of  soul, 
that  he  is  not  able  to  vary  his  matter  and  to  amplify 
beyond  the  formal  topics  of  analysis;  or  wliether  it  ari- 
ses from  affectation  of  sucli  a  way  of  talking,  is  hard  to 
say:  but  it  is  certain  that  the  chief  part  of  his  auditory 
are  not  overn)uch  profited  or  pleased.  When  I  sit  un- 
der his  preaching,  I  fancy  myself  brought  into  the  val- 
ley of  Ezekiel's  vision;  it  was  full  of  bones,  and  behold, 
there  were  very  many  in  the  valley,  and  lo,  tliey  were 
very  dry. — Ezek.  xxxvii.  1,  2. 

It  is  tlie  variety  of  enlargement  upon  a  few  proper 
heads  that  clothes  the  dry  bones  witli  flesh,  and  ani- 
mates them  with  blood  and  spirits:  itis  this  that  colours  the 
discourse,  makes  it  warm  and  strong,  and  renders  the 
divine  propositions  brigiit  and  persuasive;  it  is  this  brmgs 
down  the  doctrine  or  the  duty  to  the  understanding  or 
conscience  of  the  whole  auditory,  and  commands  the 
natural  affections  into  the  interest  of  the  gospel:  in 
short,  it  is  this  that,  under  the  influence  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  gives  life  and  force,  beauty  and  success  to  a  ser- 
mon, and  provides  food  for  souls.  A  single  rose-bush, 
or  a  dwarf-pear,  with  all  their  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit 
about  them,  have  more  beauty  and  spirit  in  themselves, 
and  yield  more  food  and  pleasure  to  mankind,  tiian  the 
innumerable  branches,  boughs,  and  twigs  of  a  long 
hedge  of  thorns.  The  fruit  will  feed  the  hungry,  and 
the  flower  will  refresh  the  fainting,  which  is  more  than 
can  be  said  of  the  thickest  oak  in  Bashan,  when  it  has 
lost  its  vital  juice;  it  may  spreadiits  limbs  indeed  far  and 
wide,  but  they  are  naked,  withered,  and  sapless. 


BY  PREACHING.  ZQl 

Sect.  III.     The  Harangue. 

Is  it.  not  possible  to  forsake  one  extreme  without  run- 
ning into  a  worse?  Is  there  no  medium  between  a  ser- 
mon made  up  of  sixty  dry  particulars,  and  a  long  loose 
declamation  without  any  distinction  of  the  parts  of  it' 
Must  the  preacher  divide  liis  work  by  the  breaks  of  a 
minute-watch,  or  let  it  run  on  incessant  to  the  last  word, 
like  the  flowing  stream  of  the  hour-glass  that  measures 
his  divinity?  Surely  Fluvio  preaches  as  though  he  knew 
no  medium;  and  having  taken  a  disgust  heretofore  at 
one  of  Polyramus's  lectures,  he  resolved  his  discourses 
should  have  no  distinction  of  particulars  in  them.  His 
language  flows  smoothly  in  a  long  connexion  of  periods, 
and  glides  over  the  ear  like  a  rivulet  of  oil  over  polished 
marble,  .and,  like  that  too,  leaves  no  trace  behind  it. 
The  attention  is  detained  in  a  gentle  pleasure,  and  (to 
say  the  best  thing  possible  of  it)  the  hearer  is  soothed 
into  something  like  divine  delight;  but  he  can  give  tlie 
inquiring  friend  scarce  any  account  of  what  it  was  that 
pleased  him.  He  retains  a  faint  idea  of  the  sweetness, 
but  has  forgot  the  sense. 

Tell  me,  Fluvio,  is  this  the  most  effectual  way  to  in- 
struct ignorant  creatures  in  the  several  articles  of  faith, 
and  the  various  duties  of  the  Cliristian  life?  Will  such  a 
long  uniform  flow  of  language  imprint  all  the  distinct 
parts  of  Christian  knowledge  on  the  mind  in  tiieir  best 
form  and  order!  Do  you  find  such  a  gentle  and  gliding 
stream  of  words  most  powerful  to  call  up  the  souls  of 
sirmers  from  their  dangerous  or  fatal  lethargy?  Will  this 
indolent  and  moveless  species  of  oratory  make  a  thought- 
less wretch  attend  to  matters  of  infinite  moment?  Can  a 
long  purling  sound  awaken  a  sleepy  conscience,  and 
give  a  perishing  sinner  just  notices  of  his  dreadful  ha- 
zard? Can  it  furnish  his  understanding  and  his  memory 
with  all  the  awful  and  tremendous  topics  of  our  religion, 
when  it  scarce  ever  leaves  any  distinct  impression  of 
one  of  them  on  his  soul?  Can  you  make  the  arrow  wound 
where  it  will  not  stick?  Where  all  the  discourse  vanishes 
from  the  remembrance,  can  you  suppose  the  soul  to 
be  profited  or  enriched?  When  you  brush  over  the  clo- 


2ba  OF  INSTRUCTION 

sed  eyelids  with  a  feather,  did  you  ever  find  it  give 
hght  to  the  blind:  Have  any  of  your  soft  harangues, 
your  continued  threads  of  silken  eloquence,  ever 
raised  the  dead?  I  fear  your  whole  aim  is  to  talk  over 
the  appointed  number  of  minutes  upon  the  subject,  or 
to  practise  a  little  upon  the  gentler  passions,  without 
any  concern  how  to  give  the  understanding  its  due  im- 
provement, or  to  furnish  the  memory  with  any  lasting 
treasure,  or  to  make  a  knowing  and  a  religious  Christian. 

Ask  old  Wheatfield,  the  rich  farmer,  ask  Plowdown, 
your  neighbour,  or  any  of  his  family,  who  have  sat  all 
their  lives  under  your  ministry,  what  they  know  of  the 
common  truths  of  religion,  or  of  the  special  articles  of 
Christianity?  Desire  them  to  tell  you  what  the  gospel  is, 
or  what  is  salvation?  wiiat  are  their  duties  toward  God, 
or  what  they  mean  by  religion'  who  is  Jesus  Christ,  or 
what  is  the  meaning  of  his  atonement,  or  redemption 
by  his  blood?  Perhaps  you  will  tell  me  yourself,  that 
you  have  very  seldom  entertained  them  with  these  sub- 
jects. Well,  inquire  of  them  then,  what  is  heaven; 
which  is  the  way  to  obtain  it;  or  what  hope  they  have 
of  dwelling  there?  Entreat  them  to  tell  you  wherein 
they  have  profited  as  to  holiness  of  heart  and  life,  or 
fitness  for  death?  They  will  soon  make  it  appear,  by 
their  awkward  answers,  that  they  understood  very  lit- 
tle of  all  your  fine  discourses,  and  those  of  your  prede- 
cessor; and  have  made  but  wretched  improvement  of 
forty  years  attendance  at  church.  They  have  now  and 
then  been  pleased  perhaps  with  the  music  of  your  voice, 
as  with  the  sound  of  a  sweet  instrument,  and  they  mis- 
took that  for  devotion;  but  their  heads  are  dark  still,  and 
their  hearts  earthly;  they  are  mere  heathens  with  a 
Christian  name,  and  know  little  more  of  God  than  their 
yokes  of  oxen.  In  short,  Polyramus's  auditors  have 
some  confusion  in  their  knowledge,  but  Fluvio's  hear- 
ers have  scarce  any  knowledge  at  all. 

But  you  will  tell  me  your  discourses  are  not  all  made 
up  of  harangue;  your  design  is  sometimes  to  inform  the 
mind  by  a  train  of  well  connected  reasonings,  and  that 
all  your  paragraphs,  in  their  long  order,  prove  and  sup- 
port each  other;    and  though  you  do   not   distinguish 


BY  PREACHING.  269 

your  discourse  into  particulars,  yet  you  have  kept  some 
invisible  method  all  the  way;  and  by  some  artificial  gra- 
dations you  have  brought  ycur  sermon  down  lo  the 
concluding  sentence. 

It  may  be  so  sometimes,  and  I  will  acknowledge  it; 
but  believe  me,  Fluvio,  this  artificial  and  invisible  method 
carries  darkness  with  it  instead  of  light;  nor  is  it  by 
any  means  a  proper  way  to  instruct  the  vulgar,  that  is, 
the  bulk  of  your  auditory:  their  souls  are  not  capable 
of  so  wide  a  stretch,  as  to  take  in  the  whole  chain  of 
your  long-connected  consequences;  you  talk  reason  and 
religion  to  them  in  vain,  if  you  do  not  make  the  argu- 
ment so  sliort  as  to  come  within  their  grasp,  and  give  a 
frequent  rest  for  their  thoughts;  you  must  break  the 
bread  of  life  into  pieces  to  feed  children  with  it,  and 
part  your  discourses  into  distinct  propositions  to  give  the 
ignorant  a  plain  scheme  of  any  one  doctrine,  and  enable 
them  to  comprehend  or  retain  it. 

Every  day  gives  us  experiments  to  confirm  what  I 
say,  and  to  encourage  ministers  to  divide  their  sermons 
into  several  distinct  heads  of  discourse.  Myrtilla,  a 
little  creature  of  nine  years  old,  was  at  church  twice 
yesterday:  in  tlie  morning  the  preacher  entertained  his 
audience  with  a  running  oration,  and  the  child  could 
give  her  parents  no  other  account  of  it,  but  that  he 
talked  smootlily  and  sweetly  about  virtue  and  heaven. 
It  was  Er_gates'  lot  to  fulfil  the  service  of  the  afternoon; 
he  is  an  excellent  preacher,  both  for  the  wise  and  for 
the  unwise:  in  tlie  evening  Myrtilla  very  prettily  enter- 
tained her  mother  with  a  repetition  of  the  most  consid- 
erable parts  of  the  sermon;  for  "  Here  (said  she)  I  can 
fix  my  thoughts  upon  first,  secondly,  and  thirdly;  upon 
the  doctrine,  the  reasons,  and  the  inferences;  and  I  knov^ 
what  I  must  try  to  remember,  and  repeat  it  when  my 
friends  shall'  ask  me;  but  as  for  the  morning  sermon,  I 
could  do  nothing  but  hear  it,  for  I  could  not  tell  what  I 
should  get  by  heait," 

This  manner  of  talking  in  a  loose  harangue  has  not 

only  injured  our  pupils,  but  it  makes  several  essays  and 

treatises  that  are   written  now-a-days  less  capable  of 

improving  the  knowledge  or  enriching  the  memory  of 

23* 


270  OP  INSTRUCTION 

the  reader.  I  will  easily  grant,  that  where  the  whole 
discourse  reaches  not  beyond  a  few  pages,  there  is  no 
necessity  for  the  formal  proposal  of  the  several  parts 
before  you  handle  each  of  them  distinctly;  nor  is  there 
need  of  such  a  set  metliod:  the  unlearned  and  narrow 
understanding  can  take  an  easy  view  of  the  whole, 
vv'ithout  the  author's  pointing  to  the  several  parts.  But 
where  the  essay  is  prolonged  to  a  greater  extent,  confu- 
sion grows  iipon  the  reader  almost  at  every  page,  with- 
out some  scheme  or  method  of  successive  heads  in  the 
discourse  to  direct  the  mind  and  aid  the  memory. 

Jf  it  be  answered  here.  That  neither  such  treatises 
nor  sermons  are  a  mere  heap,  for  there  is  a  just  method 
observed  in  the  composure,  and  the  subjects  are  ranked 
in  a  j)roper  order,  it  is  easy  to  reply.  That  this  method 
is  so  concealed,  that  a  common  reader  or  hearer  can 
never  find  it;  and  you  must  suppose  every  one  that  pe- 
ruses such  a  book,  and  much  more  that  attends  such  a 
discourse,  to  have  some  good  knowledge  of  the  art  of 
logic  before  he  can  distinguish  the  various  parts  and 
branches,  the  connexions  and  transitions  of  it.  To  an 
unlearned  eye  or  ear  it  appears  a  mere  heap  of  good 
things,  without  any  method,  form,  or  order;  and  if  you 
tell  your  young  friends  they  should  get  it  into  their 
heads  and  hearts,  they  know  not  how  to  set  about  it. 

If  we  inquire  how  it  comes  to  pass  that  our  modern 
ingenious  writers  should  affect  this  manner,  I  know  no 
juster  reason  to  give  for  it,  than  a  humorous  and  wanton 
contempt  of  the  customs  and  preaching  of  our  forefa- 
thers: a  sensible  disgust  taken  at  some  of  their  mistakes 
and  ill  conduct  at  first  tempted  a  vain  generation  into 
the  contrary  extreme  near  sixty  years  ago;  and  now, 
even  to  this  day,  it  continues  too  much  in  fashion,  so 
that  the  wise,  as  well  as  the  weak,  are  ashamed  to 
oppose  it,  and  are  borne  down  with  the  current. 

Our  fathers  formed  their  sermons  much  upon  the 
model  of  doctrine,  reason,  and  use:  and  perhaps  there 
is  no  one  method  of  more  universal  service,  and  more 
easily  applicable  to  most  subjects,  though  it  is  not  neces- 
sary or  proper  in  every  discourse;  but  the  very  names 
of  doctrine  and  use  are  become  now-a-days  such  stale  and 


BY  PREACHING.  271 

old  fashioned  things,  that  a  modish  preacher  is  quite 
ashamed  of  them;  nor  can  a  modish  hearer  bear  the 
sound  of  those  syllables.  A  direct  and  distinct  address 
to  the  consciences  of  saints  and  sinners  must  not  be 
named  or  mentioned,  though  these  terms  are  scriptural, 
lest  it  should  be  hissed  out  of  the  church  like  the  garb 
of  a  roundhead  or  a  puritan. 

Some  of  our  fathers  have  multiplied  their  particulars 
under  one  single  head  of  discourse,  and  run  up  the  tale 
of  them  to  sixteen  or  seventeen.  Culpable  indeed,  and 
too  numerous!  But  in  opposition  to  this  extreme,  we 
are  almost  ashamed  in  our  age  to  say  thirdly;  and  all 
fourthlies  and  fifthlies  are  very  unfashionable  words. 

Our  fathers  made  too  great  account  of  tlie  sciences 
of  logic  and  metaphysics,  and  the  formalities  of  defini- 
tion and  division,  syllogism  and  method,  when  they 
brought  them  so  often  into  the  pulpit;  but  we  hold  those 
arts  so  much  in  contempt  and  defiance,  that  we  had 
rather  talk  a  whole  hour  without  order,  and  without 
edification,  than  be  suspected  of  using  logic  or  method 
in  our  discourses. 

Some  of  our  falliers  neglected  politeness  perhaps  too 
much,  and  indulged  a  coarseness  of  style,  and  a  rough 
or  awkward  pronunciation;  but  we  have  such  a  value 
for  elegancy,  and  so  nice  a  taste  for  what  we  call  polite, 
that  we  dare  not  spoil  the  cadence  of  a  period  to  quote 
a  text  of  Scripture  in  it,  nor  disturb  the  harmony  of 
our  sentences  to  number  or  to  name  the  heads  of  our 
discourse.  And  for  tliis  reason  I  have  heard  it  hinted, 
that  the  name  of  Christ  has  been  banished  out  of  polite 
sermons,  because  it  is  a  monosyllable  of  so  many  conso- 
nants and  so  harsli  a  sound. 

But  after  all,  our  fathers,  with  all  their  defects,  and 
with  all  their  weaknesses,  preached  the  gospel  of  Christ 
to  the  sensilde  instruction  of  whole  parishes,  to  the  con- 
version of  sinners  from  the  errors  of  their  way,  and  the 
salvation  of  multitudes  of  souls.  But  it  has  been  the 
late  complaint  of  Dr.  Edwards,  and  other  worthy  sons 
of  the  establislied  church,  that  in  too  many  pulpits  now- 
a-days  there  are  only  heard  some  smooth  declamations, 
while  the  hearers  that  were  ignorant   of  the  gospel 


272  OF  WRITING  CONTROVERSIES. 

abide  still  without  knowledge,  and  the  profane  sinners 
are  profane  still.  O  that  divine  grace  would  descend, 
and  reform  what  is  amiss  in  all  the  sanctuaries  of  the 
nation!* 


CHAPTER  VII. 

OF  WRITING  BOOKS  FOR  THE  PUBLIC. 

In  the  explication  and  distinction  of  words  and  things 
by  definition  and  description,  in  the  division  of  things 
into  their  several  parts,  and  in  the  distribution  of  things 
into  their  several  kinds,  be  sure  to  observe  a  just  me- 
dium. We  must  not  always  explain  and  distinguish, 
define,  divide,  and  distribute;  nor  must  we  always  omit 
it:  sometimes  it  is  useless  and  impertinent,  sometimes  it 
is  proper  and  necessary.  There  is  confusion  brought 
into  our  argimient  and  discourse  by  too  many  or  by  too 
few  of  these.  One  author  plunges  his  reader  into  tlie 
midst  of  things  without  due  explication  of  them;  another 
jumbles  together,  without  distinction,  all  tliose  ideas 
wliicli  have  any  likeness;  a  tliird  is  fond  of  explaining 
every  word,  and  coining  distinctions  between  ideas  wiiicli 
have  little  or  no  difference;  but  each  of  these  runs  into 
extremes,  for  all  tiiese  practices  are  equal  liinderances 
to  clear,  just,  and  useful  knowledge.  It  is  not  a  long 
train  of  rules,  but  observation  and  good  judgmenr  can 
teach  us  wlien  to  explain,  define,  and  divide,  and  when 
to  omit  it. 

In  the  beginning  of  a  treatise  it  is  proper  and  neces- 
sary sometimes  to  premise  some  prfficognita,  or  general 
principles,  which  may  serve  for  an  introduction  to  the 

*  It  appears  by  the  dale  at  the  bottom  of  this  paper,  in  the  manu- 
script, that  it  was  written  in  the  year  1718.  The  first  and  perhaps 
the  denond  section  of  it  may  seem  now  to  be  grown,  in  a  great  mea- 
sure, out  of  date;  but  whether  the  third  is  not  at  least  as  seasonable 
now  as  ever,  may  deserve  serious  consideration.  The  autlior  has, 
since  this  was  drawn  up,  delivered  his  sentiments  more  fully  in  the 
hrst  i>art  of  that  excellent  piece,  entitled  "  An  Humble  Attempt  for 
the  Revival  of  Religion,"  &.c. 


OF  WRITING  CONTROVERSIES. 


273 


subject  in  hand,  and  give  light  or  strength  to  the  fol- 
lowing discourse;  but  it  is  ridiculous,  under  a  pretence 
of  such  introductions  or  prefaces,  to  wander  to  the  most 
remote  or  distant  themes,  which  have  no  near  or  neces- 
sary connexion  with  the  thing  in  hand;  this  serves  for 
no  other  purpose  but  to  make  a  gaudy  show  of  learn- 
ing. There  was  a  professor  of  divinity  who  began  an 
analytical  exposition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  with 
such  prcBcognita  as  these:  first  he  showed  the  excellence 
of  man  above  other  creatures,  who  was  able  to  declare 
the  sense  of  his  mind  by  arbitrary  signs:  then  he  haran- 
gued upon  the  origin  of  speech;  after  that  he  told  of 
the  wonderful  invention  of  writing,  and  inquired  into 
tlie  author  of  that  art  which  tauglit  us  to  paint  sounds; 
when  he  had  given  us  the  various  opinions  of  the  learn- 
ed upon  this  point,  and  distributed  writing  into  the  sev- 
eral knids,  and  laid  down  definitions  of  them  all,  ut 
last  he  came  to  speak  of  epistolary  writing,  and  distin- 
guished epistles  into  familiar,  private,  public,  recom- 
mendatory, credential,  and  what  not:  tlience  he  descend- 
ed to  speak  of  the  superscription,  subscription,  &c.;  and 
some  lectures  were  finished  before  he  came  to  the  first 
verse  of  St.  Paul's  Epistle.  Tlie  auditors,  being  half 
starved  and  tired  with  expectation,  dropped  away  one 
by  one,  so  that  the  professor  had  scarce  any  hearer  to 
attend  the  college  or  lectures  which  he  had  promised  on 
that  part  of  Scripture. 

The  rules  whicli  Horace  has  given  in  his  Art  of  Poe- 
try would  instruct  many  a  preacher  and  professor  of 
theology,  if  they  would  but  attend  to  them.  He  informs 
us  that  a  wise  antlior,  such  as  Homer,  who  writes  a 
poem  of  the  Trojan  war,  would  not  begin  a  long  and 
far  distant  story  of  Jupiter,  in  the  form  of  a  swan,  im- 
pregnating Leda  with  a  double  egg;  from  one  part 
whereof  Helen  was  hatched,  who  was  married  to  Mene- 
laus,  a  Greek  general,  and  then  stolen  from  him  by 
Paris,  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy;  v/hich  awakened  the 
resentment  of  the  Greeks  against  the  Trojans: 

Nee  gemino  bellum  Trojaiuun  orditur  ab  ovo. 

But  the  writer,  says  he,  makes  all  proper  haste  to  the 
event  of  things,  and  does  not  drag  on  slowly,  perpetu- 


274  OF  WRITING  CONTROVERSIES. 

ally  turning  aside  from  his  point,  and  catching  at  every 
incident  to  prolong  his  story,  as  though  he  wanted  matter 
to  furnish  out  his  tale: 

Semper  ad  eventum  festinat. 

Though  I  must  confess  I  cannot  think  Homer  has  always 
followed  this  rule  in  either  of  his  two  famous  epic  poems; 
but  Horace  does  not  hear  wliat  I  say.  There  is  also 
another  rule  near  akin  to  the  former. 

As  a  writer  or  speaker  should  not  wander  from  his 
subject  to  fetch  in  foreign  matter  from  afar,  so  neither 
should  he  amass  together  and  drag  in  all  that  can  be 
said,  even  on  his  appointed  theme  of  discourse;  but  he 
should  consider  wliat  is  his  chief  design,  wliat  is  the 
end  he  liath  in  view,  and  then  to  make  every  part  of 
his  discourse  subserve  tiiat  design.  If  he  keep  liis  great 
end  always  in  his  eye,  he  will  pass  hastily  over  those 
parts  or  appendages  of  his  subject  whicli  have  no  evi- 
dent connexion  with  his  design;  or  he  will  entirely  omit 
them,  and  hastefn  continually  toward  his  intended  mark, 
employing  his  time,  his  study,  and  labour,  chiefly  on 
the  part  of  liis  subject  whicli  is  most  necessary  to  attain 
his  present  and  proper  end. 

This  might  be  illustrated  by  a  multitude  of  examples; 
but  an  author  who  would  iieap  them  together  on  such 
an  occasion  miglit  be  in  danger  of  becoming  himself  an 
example  of  the  impertinence  he  is  cautioning  others  to 
avoid. 

After  you  have  finished  any  discourse  whicli  you  de- 
sign for  the  public,  it  would  be  always  best,  if  other  cir- 
cumstances would  permit,  to  let  it  sleep  some  time  be- 
fore you  expose  it  to  the  world,  that  so  you  may  have 
opportunity  to  review  it  with  the  indifference  of  a 
stranger,  and  to  make  the  whole  of  it  pass  under  a  new 
and  just  examination:  for  no  man  can  judge  so  justly  of 
his  own  work,  while  tlie  pleasure  of  his  invention  and 
performance  is  fresh,  and  has  engaged  his  self-love  too 
much  on  the  side  of  what  he  has  newly  finished. 

If  an  author  would  send  a  discourse  into  the  world 
which  should  be  most  universally  approved,  he  should 
consult  persons  of  very  different  genius,  sentiment,  and 
party,  and  endeavour  to  learn  their  opinions  of  it:  in 


\ 


OF  WRITING  CONTROVERSIES.  276 

the  world  it  will  certainly  meet  with  all  these.  Set  it 
therefore  to  view  among  several  of  your  acquaintance 
first,  who  may  survey  the  argument  on  all  sides,  and 
one  may  happen  to  suggest  a  correction  which  is  en- 
tirely neglected  by  others;  and  be  sure  to  yield  yourself 
to  the  dictates  of  true  criticism  and  just  censure  where- 
soever you  meet  with  them,  nor  let  a  fondness  for  what 
you  have  written  blind  your  eyes  against  the  discovery 
of  your  own  mistakes. 

Wiien  an  author  desires  a  friend  to  revise  his  work,  it 
is  too  frequent  a  practice  to  disallow  almost  every  cor- 
rection which  a  judicious  friend  shall  make.  He  apolo- 
gizes for  this  word,  and  the  other  expression;  he  vindi- 
cates this  sentence,  and  gives  his  reasons  for  another 
paragraph,  and  scarcely  ever  submits  to  correction;  and 
thus  utterly  discourages  the  freedom  that  a  true  friend 
would  take  in  pointing  out  our  mistakes.  Such  writers, 
who  are  so  full  of  themselves,  may  go  on  to  admire 
their  own  incorrect  performances,  and  expose  their 
works  and  their  follies  to  the  world  without  pity.* 

Horace,  in  his  Art  of  Poetry,  talks  admirably  well  on 
this  subject: 

Quintilio  si  quid  recitares,  Corrige,  sodes, 

Hoc,  aiebat,  et  hoc:  melius  te  posse  negares, 

Bis  terque  expertum  frastra,  delere  jubebat, 

Et  male  lornatos  incudi  reddere  versus. 

Si  defendere  delictum,  quam  vertere,  malles; 

Nullum  ultra  verbum,  aut  operam  insuraebat  inanem, 

Q.uiu  sine  rivali  teque  et  tua  solus  amares. 

Let  good  Q,uintilius  all  your  lines  revise, 

And  he  will  freely  say.  Mend  this,  and  this. 

Sir,  I  have  often  tried,  and  tried  again, 

I'm  sure  I  can't  do  better;  'tis  in  vain. 

Then  blot  out  ev'ry  word,  or  try  once  more, 

And  file  these  ill  turn'd  verses  o'er  and  o'er. 

But  if  you  seem  in  love  with  your  own  thought, 

More  eager  to  defend  than  mend  your  fault, 

He  says  no  more,  but  lets  the  fop  go  on, 

And  rival-free  admire  his  lovely  own.  Creech. 

*  To  cut  off  such  chicanery,  it  may  perhaps  be  the  most  expe- 
dient for  a  person  consulted  on  such  an  occasion,  to  note  down  in  a 
distinct  paper,  with  proper  references,  the  advised  alterations,  re 
ferriug  it  to  the  author  to  make  such  use  of  them  as  he,  ou  due  de- 
liberation, shall  think  fit. 


276  OP  WRITING  CONTROVERSIES. 

If  you  have  not  the  advantage  of  friends  to  survey 
your  writirurs,  then  read  them  over  yourself,  and  all  the 
way  consider  what  will  be  the  sentence  and  judgment 
of  all  tiie  various  characters  of  mankind  upon  them: 
think  what  one  of  your  own  party  would  say,  or  what 
would  be  the  sense  of  an  adversary:  imagine  what  a 
curious  or  malicious  man,  what  a  captious  or  an  envious 
critic,  what  a  vulgar  or  a  learned  reader  would  object, 
either  to  tlie  matter,  the  manner,  or  the  style;  and  be 
sure  and  think  with  yourself  what  you  yourself  could 
say  against  your  own  writing,  if  you  were  of  a  ditferent 
opinion  or  a  stranger  to  the  writer:  and  by  these  means 
you  will  obtain  some  hints  whereby  to  correct  and  im- 
prove your  own  work,  and  to  guard  it  better  against  the 
censures  of  the  public,  as  well  as  to  render  it  more  use- 
ful to  that  part  of  mankind  for  whom  you  chietly  de- 
sign it. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

OF  WRITIKG  AND  READING  CONTROVERSIES. 

Sect.  I.     Of  writing  Controversies. 

When  a  person  of  good  sense  writes  on  any  contro- 
verted subject,  he  will  generally  bring  the  strongest  ar- 
guments that  are  usually  to  be  found  for  the  support  of 
his  opinion;  and  when  that  is  done,  he  will  represent 
the  most  powerful  objections  against  it  in  a  fair  and  can- 
did manner,  giving  them  their  full  force;  and  at  last  will 
put  in  such  an  answer  to  those  objections  as  he  thinks 
will  dissipate  and  dissolve  the  force  of  the.n:  and  herein 
the  reader  will  generally  find  a  full  view  of  thvi  contro- 
versy, together  w  ith  the  main  strength  of  argument  on 
both  sides. 

When  a  good  writer  has  set  forth  his  own  opinion  at 
large,  and  vindicated  it  with  its  fairest  and  strongest 
proofs,  he  shall  be  attacked  by  some  pen  on  the  other 
side  of  the  question:  and  if  his  opponent  be  a  wise  and 


OF  WRITING  CONTROVERSIES.  277 

eensib'e  writer,  he  will  show  the  best  reasons  why  tJie 
former  opinions  cannot  be  true;  that  is,  he  will  draw  out 
the  objections  against  them  in  their  fullest  array,  in 
order  to  destroy  what  he  supposes  a  mistaken  opinion; 
and  here  we  may  reasonably  suppose  tiiat  an  opponent 
will  draw  up  his  objections  against  the  supposed  error 
in  a  brighter  light,  and  witli  stronger  evidence  than  the 
first  writer  did.  who  propounded  his  opinion,  which  was 
contrary  to  those  objections. 

If,  in  the  third  place,  the  first  writer  answers  his  op- 
ponent with  care  and  diligence,  and  maintains  his  own 
point  against  the  objections  which  were  raised  in  the 
best  manner;  the  reader  may  then  generally  presume, 
that  in  these  three  pieces  he  has  a  complete  view  of 
the  controversy;  together  with  the  most  solid  and  pow- 
erful arguments  on  both  sides  of  the  debate. 

But  when  a  fourth,  and  fifth,  and  sixth  volume  appears 
in  rejoinders  and  replies,  we  cannot  reasonably  expect 
any  great  degrees  of  light  to  be  derived  from  them,  or 
that  much  further  evidences  for  truth  should  be  found 
in  them;  and  it  is  sufficiently  evident,  from  daily  expe- 
rience, that  many  mischiefs  attend  this  prolongation  of 
controversies  among  men  of  learning,  which,  for  the 
most  part,  do  injury  to  the  truth,  either  by  turning  the 
attention  of  the  reader  quite  away  from  the  original 
point  to  otlier  matters,  or  by  covering  the  truth  with  a 
multitude  of  occasional  incidents  and  perplexities,  which 
serve  to  bewilder  rather  than  guide  a  faithful  inquirer. 

Sometimes,  in  these  latter  volumes,  the  writers  on 
both  sides  will  hang  upon  little  words  and  occasional 
expressions  of  their  opponent,  in  order  to  expose  them, 
which  have  no  necessary  connexion  with  the  grand  point 
in  view,  and  which  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  debated 
truth. 

Sometimes  they  will  spend  many  a  page  in  vindica- 
ting their  own  character,  or  their  own  little  sentences 
or  accidental  expressions,  from  the  remarks  of  their 
opponent,  in  which  expressions  or  remarks  the  original 
truth  has  no  concern. 

And  sometimes  again  you  shall  find  even  writers  of 
igood  sense,  who  have  happened  to  express  themselves 
24 


278  OP  WRITING  CONTROVERSIES. 

in  an  improper  and  indefensible  manner,  led  away  by 
the  fondness  of  self-love  to  justify  those  expressions, 
and  vindicate  those  little  lapses  they  were  guilty  of, 
rather  than  they  will  condescend  to  correct  those  little 
mistakes,  or  recall  those  improper  expressions.  O  that 
we  would  put  off  our  pride,  our  self-sufficiency,  and 
our  infallibility,  when  we  enter  into  a  debate  of  truth! 
But  if  the  writer  is  guilty  of  mingling  these  things  with 
this  grand  argument,  happy  will  that  reader  be  who  has 
judgment  enough  to  distinguish  them,  and  to  neglect 
every  thing  that  does  not  belong  to  the  original  theme 
proposed  and  disputed. 

Yet  here  it  may  be  proper  to  put  in  one  exception 
to  this  general  observation  or  remark,  namely,  When 
the  second  writer  attacks  only  a  particular  or  collateral 
opinion  which  was  maintained  by  the  first,  then  the 
fourth  writing  may  be  supposed  to  contain  a  necessary 
part  of  the  complete  force  of  the  argument,  as  well  as 
the  second  and  third,  because  the  first  writing  only  oc- 
casionally or  collaterally  mentioned  that  sentiment  which 
the  second  attacks  and  opposes;  and  in  such  a  case  the 
second  may  be  esteemed  as  the  first  treatise  on  tliat  con- 
troversy. It  would  take  up  too  much  time  should  we 
mention  instances  of  tliis  kind  which  might  be  pointed 
to  in  most  of  our  controversial  writers,  and  it  mijrht  be 
invidious  to  enter  into  the  detail.* 

*  Upon  this  it  may  be  remarked  farther,  that  there  is  a  certain  spi- 
rit of  modesty  and  of  benevolence,  which  never  fails  to  adorn  a  wri- 
ter on  such  occasions,  and  which  generally  does  him  much  more  ser- 
Tice  in  the  judgment  of  wise  and  sensible  men,  than  any  poignancy 
of  satire  with  which  he  might  be  able  to  animate  his  productions; 
and  as  this  always  appears  amiable,  so  it  is  peculiarly  charming  when 
the  opponent  shows  that  pertness  and  petulaiicy  which  is  so  very 
common  on  such  occasions.  When  a  writer,  instead  of  pursuing 
with  eager  resentment  the  antagonist  that  has  given  him  such  provo- 
cation, calmly  attends  to  the  main  question  in  debate,  with  a  noble 
negligence  of  those  little  advantages  which  ill  nature  and  ill  manner* 
always  give,  he  acquires  a  glory  far  superior  to  any  Iropliies  whicii 
wit  can  raise.  And  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  solid  instruction 
his  pages  may  contain  will  give  a  continuance  to  his  writings  far  be- 
yond what  tracts  of  peevish  controversy  are  to  expect,  of  which  the 
much  greater  part  are  borne  away  into  oblivion  by  the  wind  they 
raise,  or  burned  in  their  own  flame. 


OF  READING  CONTROVERSIES.  279 

Sect.  II.     Of  reading  Controversies. 

When  we  take  a  book  into  our  hands  wherein  any 
doctrine  or  opinion  is  printed  in  a  way  of  argument,  we 
are  too  often  satisfied  and  determined  beforehand  whether 
it  be  right  or  wrong;  and  if  we  are  on  the  writer's  side, 
we  are  generally  tempted  to  take  his  arguments  for  solid 
and  substantial.  And  thus  our  own  former  sentiment 
is  established  more  powerfully,  without  a  sincere  search 
after  truth. 

If  we  are  on  the  other  side  the  question,  we  then  take 
it  for  granted  that  there  is  nothing  of  force  in  these  ar- 
guments, and  we  are  satisfied  with  a  short  survey  of 
the  book,  and  are  soon  persuaded  to  pronounce  mistake, 
weakness,  and  insufficiency  concerning  it.  Multitudes 
of  common  readers,  who  are  fallen  into  any  error,  when 
they  are  directed  and  advised  to  read  a  treatise  that 
!  would  set  them  right,  read  it  with  a  sort  of  disgust 
which  they  have  before  entertained;  they  skim  lightly 
over  the  arguments,  they  neglect  or  despise  the  force 
of  them,  and  keep  their  own  conclusion  firm  in  their 
assent,  and  thus  maintain  their  error  in  the  midst  of 
light,  and  grow  incapable  of  conviction. 

But  if  we  would  indeed  act  like  sincere  searchers  of 
j  the  truth,  we  should  survey  every  argument  with  a  care- 
ful and  unbiassed  mind,  whether  it  agree  with  our  for- 
mer opinion  or  no:  we  should  give  every  reasoning  its 
I  full  force,  and  weigh  it  in  our  sedatest  judgment.    Now 
'  the  best   vay  to  try  what  force  there  is  in  the  arguments 
which  are  brought  against  our  own  opinions,  is  to  sit 
down  and  endeavour  to    give  a  solid  answer,   one  by 
one,  to  every  argument  which  the  author  brings  to  sup- 
port his  own  doctrine:  and  in  this  attempt,  if  we  find 
there  some  arguments  which  we  are  not  able  to  answer 
fairly  to  our  own  minds,  we  should  then  begin  to  be- 
think ourselves  whether  we  have  not  hitherto  been  in 
a  mistake,  and  whether  the  defender  of  the  contrary  sen- 
timents may  not  be  in   the  right.      Such  a  method  as 
I  this  will  effectually  forbid    us    to   pronounce    at    once 
'  against  those  doctrines  and  those  writers  which  are  con- 
trary to  our  sentiments;  and  we  shall  endeavour  to  find 


260  OP  READING  CONTROVERSIES. 

solid  arguments  to  refute  their  positions,  before  we  en- 
tirely establish  ourselves  in  a  contrary  opinion. 

Volatilis  had  given  himself  up  to  the  conversation 
of  the  freethinkers  of  our  age,  upon  all  subjects;  and 
being  pleased  with  the  wit  and  appearance  of  argu- 
ment, in  some  of  our  modern  deists,  had  too  easily  de- 
serted the  Christian  faith,  and  gone  over  to  the  camp 
of  the  infidels.  Among  other  books  which  were  recom- 
mended him,  to  reduce  him  to  the  faith  of  the  Gospel, 
he  had  Mr.  John  Reynolds's  three  Letters  to  a  Deist  put 
into  his  hand,  and  was  particularly  desired  to  peruse 
the  third  of  them  with  the  utmost  care,  as  being  an  un- 
answerable defence  of  the  truth  of  Christianity.  He 
took  it  in  hand,  and  after  having  given  it  a  short  sur- 
vey, he  told  his  friend  he  saw  nothing  in  it  but  the  com- 
mon arguments  which  we  all  use  to  support  the  religion 
in  whicii  we  had  been  educated;  but  tliey  wrouglit  no 
conviction  in  him;  nor  did  he  see  sufficient  reason  to 
believe  that  the  Gospel  c?  Christ  was  not  a  piece  of 
enthusiasm,  or  a  mere  imposture. 

Upon  this,  the  friend  who  recommended  Mr.  Rey- 
nolds's three  letters  to  his  study,  being  confident  of  the 
force  of  truth  which  lay  there,  entreated  Volatilis  that 
he  would  set  himself  down  with  diligence,  and  try  to 
answer  Mr.  Reynolds's  third  letter  in  vindication  of  the 
Gospel;  and  that  he  would  show  under  every  head  how 
the  several  steps  which  were  taken  in  the  propagation 
of  the  Christian  religion  might  be  the  natural  effects 
of  imposture  or  enthusiasm,  and,  consequently,  that  it 
deserves  no  credit  amongst  men. 

Volatilis  undertook  the  work,  and,  after  he  had  en- 
tered a  little  way  into  it,  found  himself  so  bewildered, 
and  his  arguments  to  prove  the  apostles  either  enthusi- 
asts or  impostors  so  muddled,  so  perplexed,  and  so  in- 
conclusive, that,  by  a  diligent  review  of  this  letter  to 
the  deists,  at  last  he  acknowledged  himself  fully  con- 
vinced that  the  religior'  of  Jesus  was  divine:  for  that 
Christian  author  had  made  it  appear  it  was  impossible 
that  that  doctrine  should  have  been  propagated  in  the 
world  by-sinipiicity  or  forty,  by  fraud  or  falsehood;  and 


OF   READING  C  OKTROVERSIES.  281 

accordingly  he  resigned  his  soul  up  to  the  gospel  of  the 
blessed  Jesas. 

I  fear  there  have  been  multitudes  of  such  unbelievers 
as  Volatilis;  and  he  himself  has  confessed  to  me,  that 
even  his  most  rational  friends  would  be  constrained  to 
yield  to  the  evidence  of  the  Christian  doctrine,  if  they 
would  honestly  try  the  same  method. 


QUESTIONS 

TJPOJf 

AVATTS» 

IMPROVEMENT   OF   THE   MIND. 


Y     J.      S.     DENMAN. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Page. 

5— Why  are  all  persons  under 
some  olilJL'ations  to  improve 
their  undersMndingl  What 
will  overspread  the  uncultiva- 
ted mind  ?  How  can  know- 
ledge and  skill  be  acquired? 
What  do  the  various  relations 
of  life  impose  upon  all  per- 
sons? 

S— In  what  have  all  persons  an 
important  concern  ?  What 
appears  to  be  the  necessary 
duty  and  interest  of  all  |)er- 
sons?  What  is  the  conse- 
quence of  acting  without 
thought  or  reason  ? 

CHAPTER  I. 

'—What  does  the  first  chapter 
contain  ?  What  is  required 
by  the  first  rule?  What 
should  we  review  ?  What 
would  be  the  result?  What 
should  we  consider  as  causes 
of  the  frailties  and  mistakes 
of  the  mind  ?  Why  should 
we  read  works  which  treat  of 
the  doctrine  of  prejudices,&c.? 
^Why  should  we  realize  our 
own  ignorance  ?  What  me- 
thods are  mentioned  in  the 
third  rule  as  sTiited  to  impress 
the  mind  with  its  imperfect 
degrees  of  knowledge  1 


Paffp.. 

9— What  would  be  the  conse- 
quence of  i)ri(ling  ourselves  oa 
account  of  superficial  attain- 
ments? What  is  the  substance 
of  the  ftmrth  rule  ? 

10— What  is  said,  in  the  fifth 
rule,  of  reading?  What  gives 
good  sense  to  the  reader,  and 
im|)roves  his  un<!erstanding? 

11 — Should  we  imagine  a  life  of 
learning  to  be  one  of  idleness 
and  ease  ?  What  is  said  of  So- 
brino,  and  Languinos? 

12 — What  should  incite  us  to 
constant  industry  in  the  pur- 
suit of  knovvledsre  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  perfertinn  of  learn- 
ing and  science  ?  Is  it  i)roba- 
ble  that  theologians  have  ar- 
rived at  a  full  understanding 
of  all  scriptural  truths  which 
can  he  known  ?  What  is  said 
of  every  man  who  shall  aid  in 
the  introduction  of  an  age  of 
light  and  love  ? 

13— What  is  taught  in  the 
eighth  rule  ?  What  is  the 
effect  of  judging  from  a  super- 
ficial view  ?  Should  we  form 
any  decided  judgment  of  our 
own  on  sul^jects  which  we 
understand  very  imperfectly  1 
What  counsels  are  given  in 
the  ninth  rule  ? 

14 — What  spirit  should  we  con- 
stantly guard  against  ?    What 


284 


QUESTIONS. 


Page. 

is  a  dogmatical  spirit  1  What 
is  said  of  forming  unalterable 
opinions'?  Mention  some  of 
the  inconveniences  attending 
a  dogmatic  spirit. 

16 — What  do  frequent  changes 
of  opinion  indicate?  What 
is  said  of  judging  falsely  l 
What  of  confessing  mistakes 
and  renouncing  errors  1  What 
of  humorous  conduct  and  fan- 
ciful temper  of  mind  1  What 
is  the  character  of  a  humor- 
ist ?  What  is  said  of  trifling 
with  important  things,  and 
sporting  with  those  which  are 
sacred  1  What  of  a  spirit  ol 
ridicule  1 

17— What  is  the  effect  of  indul- 
ging in  any  evil  habit  1  Why 
should  we  maintain  a  virtuous 
and  pious  frame  of  spirit  ? 
What  effect  does  sensuality 
and  the  indulgence  of  appe- 
tite produce  upon  the  mind  1 
Who  is  in  a  fair  way  to  wis- 
dom "?  What  is  said  of  piety, 
and  those  who  abandon  reli- 
gion ? 

18— What  does  the  fifteenth  nile 
warn  us  to  watch  against? 
What  is  said  of  self-sufficien- 
cy in  theattainment  of  know- 
ledge 1  What  of  those  who 
neglect  religion,  and  depend 
wholly  upon  their  own  rea- 
son ? 

11>— What  are  the  teachings  of 
the  sixteenth  rule  7  Mention 
some  of  the  reasons  and  argu- 
ments given  in  this  rule,  for 
uniting  industry,  study,  and 
devotion,  in  the  pursuit  of 
knowledge  and  true  wisdom. 

CHAPTER  n. 

SI- What  five  methods  are  men- 
tioned by  which  the  mind 
is  improved  in  knowledge? 
What  is  observation?    What 


Pntre. 
do  we  gain  In'  observation 
from  infancy  ?  Mention  some 
fects  which  we  know  by  ob- 
servation. When  is  observa- 
tion called  experience  ?  Hovr 
do  we  know  we  have  the 
power  of  thinking. fearingi&c? 

22 — What  does  observation  in- 
clude ?  When  is  it  called  ex- 
periment? What  is  said  of 
reading?  What  of  lectures  1 
What  of  conversation  ?  Is 
conversation  always  nuitually 
beneficial  ? 

23 — What  does  nieditation  in- 
clude ?  Mention  some  of  the 
results  of  meditation.  What  | 
furnishes  the  mind  with  its 
first  ideas  ?  On  what  does 
the  foundation  of  knowledge 
deiiend  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
impossibility  of  being  taught 
by  n)en  and  books,  if  we  had 
gained  no  knowledge,  by  ob- 
servation, of  external  objects, 
and  the  operations  of  our  own 
minds  ? 

24 — What  is  the  second  advan- 
tage mentioned  of  obtaining  | 
knowledge    by    observation? 
Why  are  ideas  gained  by  ob- 
servation generally  clearer  and 
more  distinct  than  those  ac- 
quired  by  reading,  conversa- 
tion, &c.    Mention  the  third'* 
advantage  of  acquiring  know- 
ledge by  observation.    What 
is  said  of  the  advantages  of  dj! 
reading  ? 

26 — Mention  some  of  the  advan- 
tages of  gaining  knowledge  by 
means  of  lectures. 

27— What  of  the  advantages  of 
conversation  ? 

28 — What    is    the   second  ad-K 
vantage  mentioned?    Third!  %. 
Fourth?  Fifth? 

29— Sixth?   Seventh? 

30— Mention  some  of  the  bene- 
fits derived  from  meditation. 


QUESTIONS. 


285 


CEIAPTER  III.  I 

Paffe. 

>2— What  is  the  subject  of  this 
chapter?  Does  observation, 
strictly  speaking,  include  any 
reasonings  of  the  mind "?  Why 
are  thoughts  relating  to  rea- 
son included  in  the  rules  for 
observation  1  What  should 
be  our  constant  design  in 
life? 
'3 — How  can  we  acquire  know- 
ledge by  observation,  when 
alone,  in  darkness  and  si- 
lence 1  How,  when  in  compa- 
ny ?  In  the  country  1  Whence 
should  we  derive  instruction  ? 
4 — What  should  we  learn  from 
,  the  vicissitudes  of  individuals 
I  and  nations'?  What  from  the 
coffin  and  funeral?  The  vices 
and  follies  of  others  1  Their 
virtues?  Deformity,  distress, 
&c.  ?  What  from  our  natural 
powers  and  faculties  ?  From 
our  p:iins  and  sorrows?  Sins 
and  follies?  Why  should  the 
laudable  curiosity  of  the  young 
be  gratified  ? 

i — What  opportunities  for  ob 
servation  should  be  given  to 
the  young?  What  observa 
tions  should  be  written  down, 
and  for  what  purpose?  What 
will  be  the  effect  of  such  prac- 
tice ?  Should  we  ever  neglect 
toimpr<ive  our  minds  by  ob- 
servation? 

— What  is  said  of  the  obser- 
T  vations  of  Theobaldino  and 
;  Puteoli  ?  Why  should  we 
I  guard  against  passions  and 
j  prejudices,  when  making  ob- 
\  5ervations  ?  What  is  said  of 
|j  false  judgments,    envy,    and 

self-flattery  ? 
I  —What  is  the  substance  of 
.  he  fifth  rule  ?  Of  the  sixth  ? 
iVhat  is  said  of  observations 
•oncerning  j.ersons  ?  Wliat 
f  the  conduct  observed  is 
lighly  culpable  ?     What  rule 


Pa^e. 
should  be  observed  in  conver- 
sation ? 

38— What  is  the  apostolic  pre- 
cept relative  to  evil  speaking  1 
What  is  a  false  induction  1 
What  is  said  of  general  ob- 
servations which  have  beea 
drawn  Irom  many  particulars  1 
What  of  hastily  determining 
universal  principles?  What 
causes  scandal  to  be  cast  upon 
a  whole  nation  ? 

CHAPTER  IV. 

38— Of  what  does  this  chapter 
treat?   What  is  said  of  books? 

39— What  advantage  would  the 
young  derive  from  having  pro- 
per books  reconimended  for 
their  reading  ?  What  is  said 
of  reading  books  of  impor- 
tance in  a  cursory  manner  1 
What  of  the  preface  and  table 
of  contents?  How  should  a 
good  book  be  read  a  second 
time  ?  What  is  said  of  pas- 
sages which  contain  ideas  or 
truths  previously  unknown  to 
the  reader?  Mention  a  se- 
cond reason  for  a  superficial 
survey  of  a  new  book  ? 

40 — What  plan  is  recommended 
for  several  persons  reading  the 
same  book  ?  What  if  they 
are  perusing  ditlerent  works 
on  the  same  subject  ?  What 
should  be  our  chief  object  in 
reading  ?  How  should  we 
deal  with  everj'  author  ? 
When  yield  our  assent  1 
What  is  sufficient  evidence  to 
demand  our  assent  to  truths 
of  the  bible  ? 

41 — Whose  reason  should  guide 
us  when  reading  the  produc- 
tions of  uninspired  men  1 
What  is  recommended  in  the 
sixth  rule  ?  To  what,  beside 
reading,  may  many  directions 
given  in  this  chapter  apply? 


QUESTIONS. 


Patre. 

What  is  the  substance  of  the 
seventh  rule  1 

42^VVhat  should  we  recollect 
when  we  have  finished  any 
book  ■?  What  is  said  of  books 
which  have  no  index  ?  What 
will  compensate  for  the  pains 
which  such  method  of  read- 
ing will  ct)<t  ?  What  of  wri- 
ters who  have  peculiar  excel- 
lencies or  defects  1  What 
benefit  will  be  derived  from 
reading  one  book  in  this  labo- 
rious manner  1 

43— Will  such  course  of  reading 
improve  the  reasoning  powers? 
Why  do  some  diligent  readers 
fail  to  make  any  advances 
In  true  knowledge  1  To  whom 
is  such  a  reader  compared 
What  is  the  efltct  of  entering 
Into  the  sense  of  all  the  argu 
ments,  and  examining  all  the 
proofs  of  the  authors  read  ? 

44— What  is  said  of  Studentio, 
Plumbinus,      and      Plunieo  ? 
What  of  those  whose  readin 
is  designed    to    fit  them   i  i 
much  talk,  and  little   know 
ledge  1      What    of    those  of 
much    reading,    a    retentive 
memory,  and   but  Uttle  med 
tation  ?       Whit  of    reading 
with  a  predetermination  to  be 
lieve  or  disbelieve  ?    To  what 
should  the  mind   always   be 
open  ? 

45 — What  ciution  is  given  ii 
the  twelfth  rule?  What  book 
should  we  read  with  freedom 
of  thought  after  our  principles 
are  well  established "?  How 
should  we  read  works  which 
defend  our  sentiments  ?  Those 
that  oppose  them  ? 

46 — To  wliat  class  of  books  do 
the  preceding  remarks  on  read 
ing  chiefly  relate  ?  What 
should  we  do  when  reading 
works  which  wi're  written  to 
direct  our  practice?     What, 


Paffe, 
when  folly  and  vice  are  re- 
presented 1  What  should  we 
remember  in  all  our  pursuits 
of  knowledge?  What  is  said 
of  history,  poesy,  &c. 

47 — What  paragraphs  and  senti- 
ments deserve  remark  ?  What 
histories,  poems,  &.c.  should  be 
reviewed  and  closely  studied  ? 
What  is  said  of  miscellaneous 
essays,  the  Spectator,  &c. 

48 — What  is  said  of  dictionaries, 
&c.  ?  What  of  pernntting  an 
unknown  word  to  pass  in  read- 
ing ?  What  is  reconunended 
when  reading  where  we  can- 
not consult  books  which  would  I 
explain  what  we  do  not  under- 
stand ?  Should  we  seek  a 
knowledge  of  the  best  authors 
on  a  subject,  or  of  the  subject 
itself? 

49 — Mention  the  follies  which 
those  are  apt  to  practice,  who 
desire  to  increase  their  know- 
ledge of  books,  but  are  con- 
tent with  the  title  pages  1 
Who  is  said  to  be  deplorably 
poor  in  understanding  ? 

CHAPTER  V. 

49 — What  may  assist  us  in 
judging  of  books  we  have  not 
seen  before  ? 

50 — Wh  it  shall  we  ascertain  by 
selecting  and  reading  a  few 
chapters  ?  What  is  the  sub- 
stance of  the  second  rule  for 
judging  of  new  books  ?  How 
are  we  apt  to  judge  of  books 
which  support  our  opinions  ? 
Of  those  which  oppose  them  1 

51 — How  should  books  be  judg- 
ed ?  What  is  said  of  several 
works  called  Characteristics  1 

52— What  is   said  of  the  mis- 

,  takesof  those  who  read  works 
on  subjects  with  which  they 
have  but  little  acquaintance? 

I     How    are    we    in  danger  of 


QUESTIONS. 


287 


Page. 
judging  of  treatises  on  sub- 
jects with  which  we  are  fa- 
miliar ? 

S3 — Are  the  prejudices  which 
warp  our  judgment  few  or 
many  ?  What  is  said  of  those 
who  are  fond  of  meddling 
with  all  appearances  of  know- 
ledge ?  Of  Divito  and  his 
companions  1 

54 — What  is  said  of  those  who 
form  judgment^  from  hearsiy] 
What  of  Sonillus  1  Of  Pro- 
bus  1 

55— What  feelings  usually  in- 
fluence those  who  severely 
censure  valuable  books  on 
account  of  trifling  mistakes 
and  errors  1  Mention  the  pre- 
cept of  Horace  on  this  sub- 
ject. 

56— What  is  said  of  envy,  and 
envious  persons  1  How  may 
an  envious  person  correct  his 
feelings  1  What  is  nmch 
more  amiable  than  accusation? 

57 — Why  is  it  easy  to  find  mis- 
takes in  all  human  produc- 
tions'? What  is  said  of  au- 
thors who  ridicule  divine  wri- 
tings and  sacred  things,  and 
exalt  the  writings  of  the  an- 
cient pigans?  Whose  wri 
tings  are  mentioned  as  difler- 
ing  from  nature  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  writings  of  Steele, 
St.  Paul,  Moses,  and  David  ? 
What  course  is  recommended 
to  little  critics  ?  What  is  the 
world  said  to  love  ?  What 
may  teach  us  to  judge  more 
favorably  of  the  performances 
of  others  ? 

58— Who  may  cavil  at  the  no- 
blest productions  ?  Mention 
another  fault  in  passing  judg- 
ment upon  books?  What  eifect 
does  this  fault  produce  on  the 
minds  of  others  ?  Did  Florus 
judge  correctly  of  the  writings 
of    Feiielon,     Archbishop  of 


Page. 
Cambray?     What  is  said  o( 
the  writings  of  Feneloni 

59 — Are  there  many  such  au- 
thors as  the  Archbishop  of 
Cam  bray?  What  is  said  of 
the  judgment  of  Altisono,  and 
the  writings  of  Casimire  ? 

60— Wliat  is  said  of  Milton?  Of 
Paradise  Lost?  How  must 
the  reader  be  influenced  who 
admires  every  line  of  that 
poem  ?  What  should  we 
consider  when  we  hear  others 
pronounce  judgment  upon  a 
book  ?  Can  every  man  of 
good  sense  judge  correctly  of 
the  merits  of  a  particular 
book? 

CHAPTER  VI. 

61 — Do  most  persons  need  the 
assistance  of  living  teachers? 
Why  is  it  advisable  to  have 
more  than  one  instructor  ? 

62— What  should  instructors 
possess  in  addition  to  compe- 
tency in  the  sciences  they 
teach  ?  What  pupils  grow 
lean  in  their  understanding? 
Why  are  some  very  learned 
men  incompetent  instructors? 
What  is  the  character  of  a 
good  tutor  ? 

63 — What  is  said  of  the  exam- 
ple and  spirit  of  a  tutor? 
What  of  the  duty  of  the  learn- 
er to  his  teacher?  Why 
should  the  student  review 
lectures  and  note  important 
results?  Should  we  be  satis- 
fied with  a  bare  attendance 
on  lectures  ?  What  opinion 
should  the  learner  maintain  of 
his  instructor  ? 

64— When  may  the  learner  dif- 
ler  from  his  tutor  ?  What  is 
said  of  young  persons  who 
fancy  themselves  wiser  than 
their  teachers  ?  Are  teachers 
infallible  ?    Mention  the  two 


288 


QUESTIONS. 


Paffe. 
extremes  to  which  youth  are 
exposed  ?  Should  the  pupil 
receive  opinions  on  the  au 
thority  of  his  tutor,  without 
exaniininfj  iheui  for  himself? 
When  should  we  receive  an 
opinion  1 


CHAPTER  VII. 

65 — What  is  of  first  importance 
in  reading  and  hearing;  lee 
tures  ?  How  are  llvin};  Ian 
puages  most  easily  learned  ' 
Dead  lanfiuages  ? 

66 — What  advice  is  given  in  rule 
third  to  those  who  have  just 
commenced  learning  a  lan- 
guage ? 

67 — What  is  said  to  be  the  liv 
ing  language  of  the  learned 
world  ? 

68 — What  inference  may  be 
drawn  from  the  fact  that 
small  children  learn  by  con 
versation  to  speak  their  mo 
ther  tongue  1 

69 — What  should  always  be 
carefully  observed  in  commit- 
ting rules  and  lessons  to  mem- 
ory? What  is  said  of  re- 
quiring children  to  memorize 
lessons  which  contain  un- 
known words  and  phrases, 
and  convey  no  ideas  to  their 
minds  ? 

72— How  may  we  retain  a  lan- 
guage? Should  we  content 
ourselves  with  a  doubtful 
translation  ? 

73 — What  are  languages  said  to 
be?  What  is  their  chief  de- 
sign ?  What  is  said  of  learn- 
ing the  words  and  phrases  of 
a  language,  without  obtaining 
corresponding  ideas?  What 
is  in  danger  of  pulling  up  the 
mind  with  vanity? 


CHAPTER  Vin. 

Page. 

73--Of  what  does  this  chapter 
treat?  Is  it  sometimes  diffi- 
cult fully  to  understand  a  wri- 
ter or  speaker  ? 

74 — What  is  the  substance  of 
the  first  rule  for  determining 
the  sense  ?  Second  rule  ? 
With  what  should  we  com- 
pare the  words  and  phrases 
of  an  author?  Why  should 
we  make  such  comparisons  ? 
Who  is  the  best  interpreter  of 
any  writer?  Why  are  con- 
cordances valuable  in  the 
interpretation  of  scripture  1 
Substance  of  fourth  rule  ? 

75— Of  fifth  rule  ?  Ol  sixth  rule  1 
What  is  necessary  to  enable 
us  to  interi)ret  scri|)ture  weVL  1 
Substance  of  eighth  rule  ? 

76 — How  may  we  judge  of  ob- 
scure passages  which  occur  in 
controversies  ?  Substance  of 
tenth  rule  ?  Of  eleventh  rule  1 
How  should  we  treat  every 
author,  writer,  and  speaker  ? 

CHAPTER  IX. 

77— Of  what  does  this  chapter 
treat  ?  With  whom  is  it  well 
to  be  acquainted  ?  What  ad- 
vice is  here  given  ?  Substance 
of  second  rule?  Of  third 
rule  ? 

78 — In  what  sense  is  a  me- 
chanic wiser  than  a  philo- 
sopher ?  Why  should  we  not 
always  confine  ourselves  to 
one  sort  of  company  ?  Why 
did  the  king  of  Siam  dis- 
believe the  European  mer- 
chants ?  What  is  said  of  con- 
versation with  foreigners  1 

79— How  should  we  hear?  Of 
what  should  we  be  cautious? 
What  divine  rule  is  here  giv- 
en ?  Whence  does  it  come? 
Substance  of  the  sixth  rule? 
Should  we  imagine  there  is 


QUESTIONS. 


289 


Paffc. 
no  certain  truth   but  in   the 
sciences  we  study  ? 

80 — Why  do  we  frequently  fail 
to  form  correct  conclusions? 
What  is  here  said  of  corres 
pendents?  What  method  is 
recommended  for  reviving  con- 
versation in  company  ? 

81 — How  may  social  visits  be 
prevented  from  running  to 
waste  ?  What  is  here  said  of 
young  ladies  ?  What  general 
rule  should  we  observe,  when 
it  is  in  our  power  to  lead  in 
conversation  ?  How  should 
we  hear  the  arguments  of 
others?  What  is  said  to  be 
an  unhappy  temper  and  prac- 
tice? 

82 — What  is  the  substance  of 
the  eleventh  rule?  Repeat 
the  quotation  from  Horace. 
What  is  recommended  in 
cases  of  obscurity  in  the  lan- 
guage of  those  with  whom  we 
are  conversing? 

83 — When  we  cannot  assent  to 
the  expressed  opinions  of  oth- 
ers, how  should  we  present 
our  objections  ?  What  should 
we  impress  upon  the  mind  of 
the  speaker?  Mention  Solo- 
mon's rule.  What  is  said  of 
confessing  our  ignorance,  and 
asking  for  information  ? 

84 — What  counsels  are  given  to 
the  young  in  the  fifteenth 
rule? 

85 — Of  what  are  weak  minds 
ready  to  persuade  themselves? 
How  may  a  wise  and  modest 
person  act  when  confronting 
a  bold  pretender,  and  innocent 
vilifier?  What  is  here  s;iid  to 
be  a  pity?  What  advice  is 
given  in  the  seventeenth  rule  ? 

86— Should  we  introduce  a  warm 
party  spirit  into  conversations 
designed  for  mutual  improve- 
ment? What  is  said  to  bar 
the  doors  of  the  understand- 


Paffe. 
ing  against  the  admission  of 
new  sentiments?  What  of 
new  discoveries,  &c.  ?  What 
is  the  substance  of  the  nine- 
teenth rule?  Of  the  twen- 
tieth ?    Of  the  tvveniy-first  ? 

87 — Whose  ignorance  and  preju- 
dices should  we  be  most  ready 
to  suspect?  How  should  we 
bear  contradiction  ?  What 
might  induce  others  to  con- 
clude that  our  opinions  are 
not  based  upon  the  evidences 
of  truth?  What  should  be 
banished  from  conversation? 
What  are  the  enemies  of 
friendship,  and  tend  to  ruin 
free  conversation  ?  What 
does  the  impartial  search  for 
truth  require? 

88— What  is  the  substance  of 
the  twenty-fourth  rule?  Of 
the  twenty-fifth  ?  What  mle 
is  given  for  selecting  compan- 
ions ?  Should  we  always  re- 
gard their  moral  chamcter? 

88-89 — Mention  the  several  in- 
firmities which  are  said  to 
make  some  moral,  intellectual, 
and  scientific  persons  undesi- 
rable associates  in  our  inqui- 
ries after  truth. 

90 — Against  what  should  we 
constantly  watch  ?  What 
should  we  do  after  retiring 
from  compiny?  What  in- 
struction should  we  draw  from 
the  thirtieth  rule  ? 

91— How  may  we  learn  to  avoid 
the  follies  which  injure  or 
destroy  good  conversation  ? 
What  may  we  acquire  by 
pursuing  such  course  ?  Where 
may  we  make  the  highest  in- 
tellectual acquisitioBS  which 
can  be  gained  by  conversing 
with  mortals  ?  W^ith  whom 
may  we  hope  to  converse  here- 
after ? 


290 


QUESTIONS. 


CHAPTER  X. 

Pasre. 

92 — Of  what  does  this  chapter 
treat?  What  is  iiere  consid- 
ered disputes  ?  Do  all  dispu- 
tants believe  in  the  proposi- 
tions they  support?  Do  all 
disputes  result  in  discovering 
or  uiainfciiniiig  truth  ?  What 
should  be  ol)served  in  com- 
mencing a  debate? 

93 — How  ujay  di^putants  avoid 
running  into  remote  propo- 
sitions and  axioms?  How 
should  every  que  tion  be  ex- 
pressed? What  advice  is  here 
given  to  a  certain  class  of  per- 
sons ? 

94— What  should  be  distinctly 
settled  between  disputants? 
What  i)revents  their  running 
from  the  (irtcise  point  of  in- 
quiry? What  is  the  chief 
cause  of  the  dishonest  artitice 
which  is  said  to  give  endless 
length  to  disputes? 

95 — What  frequently  prevents 
us  from  yielding  our  assent 
to  the  convictions  of  truth? 
What  is  said  to  be  the  bane  of 
all  real  improvement,  and  to 
work  with  a  secret  influence 
in  all  disputes?  To  what 
does  the  mind  often  resort  to 
ward  ort"  the  convictions  of 
truth  ?  How  should  we  enter 
upon  every  debile? 

06 — What  is  a  more  vnluable 
acquisition  than  a  victory  over 
an  opponent?  What  should 
we  narrowly  watch  in  every 
dispute  ?  How  did  Cautio  ex- 
tricate himself  from  the  ditli- 
culty  in  which  he  was  invol- 
ved by  too  readily  yielding 
his  assent  to  the  proposition 
of  Polonides  ? 

97 — Wh  a  was  the  argument  of 
Fatalio  to  induce  Fidens  to 
leave  off  prayer?  What  argu- 
ment is  used  to  induce  Fideus 
to  continue  daily  prayer  ? 


Page. 

98 — What  inquiry  is  made  rela- 
tive to  Sodom  and  (iomorrah, 
the  Deluge,  fee?  What  cau- 
tion is  given  in  relation  to  the 
subtle  errors  of  men  ?  What 
course  should  we  pursue 
when  an  opponent  makes  a 
concession  which  may  be  ser- 
viceable to  us  in  maintaining 
the  truth? 

99— Mention  the  entire  argu- 
ment of  Rhapsodus  in  attempt- 
ing to  detract  from  the  honor 
of  Christianity  ?  What  con- 
cessions does  he  subsequently 
make?  Can  Christi;tnity  be 
supported  by  this  concession? 
Repeat  the  argument  given. 

100 — Mention  the  three  ques- 
tions here  put  to  Rhapsodus  ? 
What  good  m.iy  have  been 
accomplished  trom  preaching 
the  doctrines  held  by  Rhapso- 
dus? Is  it  probible  that  en- 
vy, revenge,  and  the  secret 
vices  of  the  muid  have  been 
subdued,  and  men  been  induc- 
ed to  forsake  their  sins  and 
love  God  with  hearts  devoted 
to  true  piety,  fiom  the  preach- 
ings of  such  doctrines  ?  What 
has  the  gospel  accomplished? 

101 — Who  understands  human 
nature  better  than  Rhapso- 
dus ?  WMiat  further  conces- 
sion does  Rha|)sodus  make? 
What  does  he  term  a  liberal 
education,  and  a  liberal  ser- 
vice? Mention  the  argument 
in  favor  of  Christianity  which 
is  drawn  from  this  concession? 
What  course  may  we  some- 
times pursue  when  engaged 
with  a  disputant  of  very  dif- 
ferent principles  from  our 
own  ? 

102— What  is  said  of  holding  an 
argument  with  a  stoic,  philos- 
opher, or  a  Jew?  Mention 
what  is  said  of  some  of  the 
arguments  of  St.  Paul  ?   What 


QUESTIONS. 


291 


Page. 
shoald  we  g:uard  against  with 
great  care?  What  frequent- 
ly causes  personal  brawls  ? 
What  is  usually  the  result  of 
such  brawls? 

103— What  is  said  of  those  who 
guard  them-elves  as  to  pre- 
vent evil  influences  from  dis- 
turbing the  superior  operations 
of  their  minds  ?  In  what  de- 
bates are  the  preceding  direc- 
tions useful  ? 

CHAPTER  XI. 

103 — Whence  does  the  Socratic 
method  of  disputation  derive 
its  name  ? 

104 — How  is  it  managed  ? 

105— What  is  the  first  class  of 
advantages  mentioned  of  the 
Socratic  method  ?  Second 
class  ?  Third  class  ?  Fourth 
class?  What  is  said  of  a 
method  nearly  akin  to  this? 

106 — What  advantage  would  be 
derived  from  framing  Chris- 
tian catechisms  in  the  manner 
of  a  Socraiical  dispute  ?  What 
inconvenience  would  arise 
from  such  catechisms  ? 


CHAPTER  XII. 

106 — Of  what  does  this  chapter 
treat  ?  What  was  the  former  " 
From  what  do  Forensic  dis 
putes  derive  their  name  ? 
What  may  be  properly  classed 
under  this  heud? 

107— Where  are  these  disputes 
practised?  Do  persons  in  a 
forensic  dispute  usually  suc- 
ceed each  other  on  the  same, 
or  opposite  sides  of  a  ques- 
tion? After  all  have  spoken, 
what  course  is  frequently  pur- 
sued by  the  speakers?  How 
is  the  controversy  decided  ? 
When  the  matter  in   debate 


Page. 
consists  of  several  parts,  what 
is  frequently  done? 

108 — What  is  usually  practised 
before  the  final  decision  is 
given  ?  Would  it  be  advisa- 
ble to  introduce  forensic  de- 
bates into  academies  and 
other  schools  ? 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

109 — Mention  the  substance  of 
the  several  steps  in  scholastic 
disputation  given  on  this  page? 
Of  what  should  the  first  part 
of  the  writer's  discourse  con- 
sist? What  should  be  giveu 
in  the  second  part? 

110 — Why  should  not  respond- 
ents indulge  in  reproaches, 
&c.  ?  How  are  scholastic  dis- 
putations conducted  ? 

Ill — What  is  the  most  useful 
and  best  sort  of  disputation  ? 

113 — What  advantages  are  here 
mentioned  as  arising  from  ac- 
ademical disputations?  What 
inconveniences  may  overbal- 
ance these  advantages? 

114 — What  inconveniences  are 
here  mentioned  as  being  lia- 
ble to  arise  from  scholastic 
disputations? 

115— Is  it  advisable  to  dispute 
about  mere  trifles  ?  Why 
should  we  not  dispute  about 
infinite  and  unsearchable 
things  ?  Why  should  we  not 
dispute  about  obvious  and 
known  truths  ?  What  would 
be  the  consequence,  if  every 
dispute  could  be  made  the 
means  of  searching  out  truth  ? 
What  should  be  the  aim  and 
design  of  ever>'  disputant? 

116— Of  what  should  every  op- 
ponent be  solicitous?  How 
should'  all  disputants  clothe 
their  thoughts  ?  What  is  here 
said  of  indulging  in  ridicule, 
jest,  and  merriment?    What 


292 


QUESTIONS. 


Page. 

of  sarcasm,  insolent  language, 
personal  scandal,  &c.  ? 

117 — What  is  here  recommend- 
ed to  both  vanquished  and 
victorious  disputants  ? 

118 — Why  does  it  seem  neces- 
sary tliat  these  methods  of 
disputation  should  be  learned 
in  schools  ? 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

118— What  has  been  establish- 
ed in  some  of  the  foregoing 
chapters? 

119— What  will  do  much  of 
themselves  toward  the  cult 
vation  of  the  mind?  Who 
has  ail  human  aids  concurring 
to  raise  him  to  a  superior  de- 
gree of  wisdom  and  know- 
ledge ?  What  direction  is 
here  given  to  the  young? 
With  what  would  scholastic 
divinity  furnish  us  ? 

120 — Mention  the  substance  of 
the  third  rule?  What  effect 
is  liable  to  be  produced  on  the 
mind,  by  its  attempting  to 
search  out  and  comprehend 
matters  far  above  its  power  " 
What  is  the  substance  of  the 
fourth  rule  1  What  should 
be  observed  in  learning  any 
thing  new  ? 

121 — How  may  the  mind  cope 
with  great  difficulties  ?  What 
is  said  of  Mathon  ?  What  of 
engaging  the  mind  in  too  many 
things  at  once  1  What  of  a 
variety  of  studies  ?  Mention 
some  studies  which  are  es- 
teemed entertaining  ? 

122 — In  the  pursuit  of  know 
ledge  what  should  we  alway; 
keep  in  view  ?  In  what  man 
ner  should  we  exert  our  skill 
and  diligence  ?  Why  are  the 
fundamental  truths  of  phi 
losophy  and  religion  of  the 


Page. 
highest  importance  ?   Mention 
some  of  these  prit;ciples? 

123 — Why  should  we  be  very 
careful  in  examining  all  pro- 
positions which  claim  to  be 
general  principles  ?  Which 
are  most  important  in  the  pur- 
suit of  knowledge,  practical 
points,  or  mere  speculations? 
Of  what  should  we  be  most 
careful  in  matters  of  practice  ? 
What  will  advance  us  apace 
toward  real  misery? 

124 — In  what  comj)arison  are 
the  interests  of  this  world  of 
small  importance?  Mention 
what  is  here  stated  relative 
to  our  religious  inquiries? 
What  is  the  substance  of  the 
eighth  rule?  Of  the  ninth 
rule  ? 

125 — How  must  things  be  con- 
sidered ?  To  what  must 
we  bring  our  understanding? 
What  is  here  said  of  becom- 
ing strongly  prejudiced  in  fa- 
vor of  one  study,  and  despis- 
ing others? 

126 — What  science  shotild  al- 
ways be  regarded  as  of  first 
importance?  What  will  be 
secured  by  order  and  method? 
Mention  the  substance  of  the 
twelfth  rule.  Of  the  thir- 
teenth. 

127 — Should  we  expect  to  arrive 
at  certainty  in  every  subject 
we  pursue  ?  How  should  we 
balanceourarguments?  What 
would  prevent  our  ever  form- 
ing a  wise  resolution  ?  To 
what  are  we  bound  to  assent 
and  act  ?  How  should  we  ap- 
ply every  study,  however  spe- 
cula tive? 

128 — To  what  should  researches 
in  Natural  Philosophy  lead  us? 
What  advantage  may  be  se- 
cured by  pursuing  nmthemat- 
ical  speculations  ?  W^hat 
should  guard  us  against  re- 


QUESTIONS. 


2d3 


hage. 
jecting  any  revealed  doctrine, 
though  we  cannot  fully  un- 
derstand it?  When  should 
we  change  our  sentiments  ? 
Is  there  equal  necessity  of  our 
changing  methods  of  study 
and  practice?  How  is  this 
illustrated  ? 

CHAPTER  XV. 

129 — What  is  highly  necessary 
in  order  to  the  improvement 
of  the  mind  ? 

130 — Why  do  we  judge  falsely 
of  many  things  ?  For  what 
should  we  obtain  a  liking  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  study  of 
mathematics  ?     Of  history  ? 

131 — Mention  the  substance  of 
the  second  rule.  What  is  the 
objection  to  representing  moral 
subjects  by  pictures?  What 
authors  should  we  read  ? 
What  is  the  substance  of  the 
fourth  rule  ? 

132 — What  counsel  is  given  in 
the  fifth  rule  ?  In  the  sixth  ? 
What  considerations  should 
serve  to  engage  and  fix  the 
mind  in  the  pursuit  of  know- 
ledge ? 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

1  133— Of  What  does  this  chapter 
I       treat  ?      Mention    the    three 
'       things  which  go  to  make  up 
that  amplitude  of  mind  which 
constitutes  the  noblest  char- 
acter of  the   understanding? 
What  is  said  of   the    mind 
which  can  readily  take  in  vast 
and  sublime  ideas  ?    What  is 
said   of   those   whose   minds 
have   been    confined    to    the 
connuon  affairs  of  hfe  ? 
j  134--Ho\v  do  persons  who  have 
I       acquired  such  contracted  hab- 
'       its  of  thought  regard  tlie  most 
glorious  and  sublime  truths? 


Page. 
What  is  the  first  step  recom- 
mended to  be  taken  for  the  re- 
lief of  such  minds  ? 

135— What  might  lead  them  to 
believe  there  are  bodies  ama- 
zingly great  or  small?  How 
may  such  minds  be  taught  to 
take  in  some  of  the  vast  di- 
mensions, spaces,  and  motions 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  ? 

136— What  writings  are  men- 
tioned as  having  a  natural 
tendency  to  enlarge  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  mind,  and  famil- 
iarize it  with  sublime  ideas? 

137 — Where  may  some  of  the 
most  exalted  ideas,  elevated 
language,  and  glorious  descrip- 
tions be  found?  Of  whom 
does  this  enlargement  of  mind 
lead  us  to  form  exalted  concep 
tions?  When  will  it  entertain 
our  thoughts  with  holy  won- 
der and  amazement  ?  Of 
whom  beside  God  does  this 
enlargement  of  mind  enable 
us  to  form  more  just  concep- 
tions ? 

138— What  ideas  are  here  ad- 
vanced of  the  various  ranks 
of  beings  ?  Of  whom  shall 
we  thus  obtain  more  just 
ideas?  What  is  a  second  evi- 
dence of  the  amplitude  of  the 
mind  ? 

139 — Who  are  justly  charged 
with  a  narrowness  of  soul  ? 
What  is  here  said  of  those 
who  have  never  travelled? 
How  may  this  narrowness  of 
mind  be  cured  ?  What  causes 
the  religious  prejudices  of  ma- 
ny people  ? 
140— Who  think  it  just  to  cen- 
sure all  those  severely  whose 
religious  opinions  are  difierent 
from  their  own  ?  How  is  this 
defect  to  be  relieved?  To 
what  test  should  we  bring  all 
doctrines  ?  What  will  enlarge 
our  charity  toward  others  ? 


294 


QUESTIONS. 


Page. 

142 — Mention  a  third  qualifica- 
tion of  the  ani|ililiule  of  mind  ? 
How  does  the  ample  mind 
survey  subjects?  What  is  a 
great  im|)ediment  to  wisdom 
and  ha|)i)iness?  What  is  a 
sign  of  a  large  and  capacious 
mind  ? 

143 — When  are  we  in  danger  of 
passing  a  false  judgment  ? 
What  things  nuist  necessarily 
be  taken  in  view  in  order  to 
determine  whether  an  action 
is  wise  or  fooUsh,  good  or 
evil? 

144 — Do  incompetent  jjersons 
frequently  pass  judgments  up- 
on |>rivate  and  public  affairs? 

145 — Why  is  it  needful  to  i)OS- 
sess  a  capacious  mind?  Wh  it 
is  here  said  of  the  natural  ca- 
pacity of  mind  V  Who  should 
apply  themselves  to  arts  and 
professions  which  are  easily 
learned  ?  What  of  those 
whose  minds  are  a  little  more 
capacious  ? 

146 — What  makes  a  great  man  ? 
What  should  we  labor  to  g  i  in  ? 
To  what  should  we  accustom 
ourselves  ?  Mention  what  is 
said  of  one  obscure  idea  ? 
What  should  we  further  con- 
sider? 

147 — For  what  should  we  use 
all  diligence  ?  How  may  we 
furnish  ourselves  with  useful 
truths,  axioms,  and  observa- 
tions to  assist  and  direct  our 
judgment  ?  To  what  should 
we  continually  inure  our 
minds  ? 

148— W^hat  is  here  said  of  the 
science  of  ontology  ?  How 
should  we  commence,  and  in 
what  manner  should  we  ad- 
vance in  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  1 

149-By  what  process  does  the  ge- 
ometrician obt  iin  that  know- 
ledge and  skill  which  enables 


Pacre. 
him  to  judge  at  one  glance  of 
the  most  complicated  diagram? 
Is  the  advantage  of  this  pro- 
gressive method  confined  to 
mathematical  learning?  What 
is  here  said  of  Plato,  Locke, 
and  others?  Mention  another 
means  of  acquiring  amplitude 
of  mind.  Where  may  such 
difficult  questions  be  found  ? 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

150 — When  are  we  said  to  re- 
member a  thing  ?  Can  we  re- 
men)ber  that  of  which  we 
never  had  any  knowledge  ? 
What  must  be  done  in  order 
to  make  our  learning  really 
u-eful  ?  What  is  here  said  of 
the  excellency  of  the  memory? 

151 — How  does  the  memory  en- 
rich the  mind  ?  What  would 
the  soul  of  man  be  without 
memory  ?  What  is  here  said 
of  the  memory  of  hearers? 
Of  speakers?  What  is  said 
to  give  life  and  spirit  to  every- 
thing spoken  ? 

152 — Is  a  good  memory-  always 
united  with  a  good  judgment? 
Upon  what  does  a  gwid  judg- 
ment in  some  measure  de- 
pend ?  How  do  we  learn  to 
judge  of  the  future  ? 

153 — What  is  said  of  Penseroso? 
What  advice  relative  to  hasty 
judgment  is  here  given  to  all? 
How  are  some  persons  of  mod- 
erate abilities  enabled  to  excel 
those  of  the  brightest  genius? 
Why  is  it  that  persons  of  a 
bright  genius  are  often  found 
to  have  but  a  feeble  memory? 

154 — What  is  here  said  of  crowd- 
ing the  memory  and  thus  abus- 
ing other  faculties  of  the 
mind?  When  may  the  mind 
be  said  to  have  large  posses- 
sions but  no  true  riches  ?  Men- 
tion   Milton's    simile  of  the 


QUESTIONS. 


295 


books  of  the  Fathers.  What 
are  said  to  compose  the  intel- 
lectual possessions  of  the 
greatest  purt  of  mankind  ? 

155— What  constitute  a  wealthy 
and  h.ippy  mind  ?  What  joys 
are  mentioned  as  not  belong- 
ing to  mortality? 

156 — What  does  the  mind  em- 
ploy in  all  its  operations?  How 
does  it  obtain  a  knowledge  of 
external  objects?  What  is 
here  said  of  the  memory  ? 
Of  the  brain  in  early  life? 
Whatdoes  the  improvementof 
the  memory  require?  What 
is  said  of  impressions  made 
upon  the  mind  ?  What  of 
persons  of  advanced  agp  ? 
How  is  the  memory  atfected  ? 

157 — What  three  cases  are  here 
mentioned  of  the  influence 
of  disease  upon  the  mind  ? 
What  of  impressions  which 
are  deeply  engraven  on  the 
mind?  Whnt  prevents  last- 
ing impressions  from  being 
made  on  the  minds  of  aged 
persons  ?  Wh<;t  may  help  to 
preserve  the  memory  ?  Whn  t 
excesses  may  impair  it  ?  Men- 
tion the  four  qualifications  of 
a  good  memory? 

158 — What  general  direction  is 
here  given  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  mental  faculties  ? 
How  will  the  memory  be  im- 
proved or  injured  ?  Why 
should  words  be  remembered 
as  well  as  things?  What 
caution  is  here  given  ? 

159— Should  the  memory  be 
crowded  with  many  ideas  at 
one  time?  Why  do  those 
things  which  are  read  or  heard 
make  but  a  slight  impression 
upon  many  minds  ?  Will 
sloth  and  indolence  bless  the 
mind  with  intellectual  riches? 
Why  does  Vario  treasure  up 
but  little  knowledge  ? 


Pnfre. 

160— Why  is  it  necessary  to 
have  distinct  ideas  of  things  ? 
How  should  everything  we 
learn  be  conveyed  to  the  un- 
derstanding ?  Why  do  many 
forget  what  has  been  taught 
them  ? 

161 — What  is  essential  in  teach- 
ing the  principles  of  religion 
to  children  ?  What  is  the  hap- 
piest way  to  furnish  the  mind 
with  a  variety  of  knowledge? 

162 — Does  the  nmtual  dei)end- 
ence  of  things  aid  the  memo- 
ry? Why  are  some  writings 
more  easily  learned  than  oth- 
ers? What  is  said  to  be  a 
fault  in  some  preachers  ? 
What  is  here  said  of  reviews 
and  abridgments  ? 

163 — Mention  the  practice  of 
Mnemon.  In  what  particular 
is  the  art  of  short-hand  useful? 

164 — What  are  we  here  coun- 
selled to  avoid  ?  What  is  a 
mostuseful  manner  of  review? 
Mention  the  practice  of  Herme- 
tas.  What  is  said  greatly  to 
assist  the  memory?  What 
of  the  natural  inclination  of 
the  learner? 

165-How  was  Spectorius  taught? 
What  is  said  of  teaching  child- 
dren  in  rhyme  and  in  way  of 
play? 

166 — Why  have  moral  rules  and 
precepts  been  written  in 
rhyme  ? 

167— What  is  of  great  import- 
ance in  aiding  the  memory? 
Mention  the  practice  of  Ma- 
ronides.  OfAnimato.  What 
is  said  of  associating  a  new 
idea  with  time  and  place  ? 

168— What  is  said  of  associating 
kindred    or    similar     ideas  « 
What  of  contraries?     Wha 
of  local  memory?    What 
meant  by  local  memory  ? 

169— What  sense  conveys  th» 
most  perfect  ideas  to  the  miiid 


296 


QUESTIONS. 


Page. 
Mention  what  Horace  affirms 
of  the   si<,'ht.     What  is  here 
said  of  the  use  of  tables,  dia- 
grams, maps,  charts,  &.C.? 

170 — What  is  here  said  of  wri- 
ting, map  drawing,  &.c.  ? 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

171 — Of  what  does  this  chapter 
treat  ?  What  should  we  con- 
sider when  a  question  is  pro- 
posed V 

172 — What  should  constitute  a 
second  suhjoct  to  be  consider- 
ed?   A  third?    A  fourth  ? 

173— A  fifth  ?  How  may  some 
questions  be  rendered  less  ob- 
scure ?  What  caution  is  given 
relative  to  new  statements? 
What  frequently  goes  a  great 
way  towiird  answering  a  ques- 
tion ?  In  wliat  does  the  great- 
est part  of  true  knowledge 
He  ?  What  often  shows  the 
mind  where  the  truth  lies? 

174 — What  caution  is  here  giv- 
en relative  to  questions  which 
relate  to  axioms,  or  first  jirin- 
Ciples?  What  is  insufficient 
to  determine  the  truth  of  a 
proposition  ?  When  may  a 
proposition  be  considered  an 
axiom?  What  should  we 
observe  in  searching  after 
truth  in  questions  of  a  donbt- 
ful  nature  ?  What  is  here 
said  of  inheriting  opinions  ? 

175— What  is  the  effect  of  in- 
heriting local  truths,  and  be- 
coming i)ositive  on  proposi- 
tions whose  evidence  we  have 
never  examined?  What  is 
said  of  determining  questions 
of  difficulty  and  importance  ? 
In  examining  objects  of  sense, 
when  is  the  examination  par- 
tial? When,  in  the  examina- 
tion of  those  which  are  to  be 
determined  by  reason  ? 
.tye — When  are  examinations 
partial  is  ciestiooa  depending 


Page. 
on  human  testimony?  What 
is  SHid  of  determining  ques- 
tions by  natural  reason, where 
we  might  be  assisted  by  reve- 
hition  ?  What  of  determining 
questions  by  doubtful  revela- 
tions? What  is  the  substance 
of  the  thirteenth  rule?  Of 
the  fourteenth  ? 

177 — Of  what  should  we  take 
heed,  and  be  watchful  ?  What 
is  here  related  of  the  ancient 
Romans?  What  is  said  of  the 
belief  in  good  and  evil  omens, 
unlucky  days,  &.c.?  What  will 
tend  to  establish  our  minds  in 
doubtful  doctrines,  and  close 
theavenuesof  future  light? 

178— Of  whnt  should  we  be 
zealous  ?  To  what  should  our 
zeal  be  subject?  What  is 
here  said  of  jest  and  ridicule  ? 
What  of  raillery  and  wit? 
What  of  a  silly  practice? 

17»— How  may  the  strongest 
reasoning,  the  best  sense,  and 
the  most  obvious  axioms  be 
made  to  appear  foolish  and 
absurd?  Does  this  deprive 
them  of  their  real  character? 
What  is  said  of  Euclid  ?  Of 
the  moral  and  religious  duties? 

180 — To  what  is  banter  and  rid- 
icule here  compared  ?  What 
is  here  said  to  be  a  piece  of 
contempt  and  profane  inso- 
lence ? 

181- What  should  alone  influ- 
ence our  opinions  in  contro- 
versies? What  is  oftentimes 
found  to  be  true  ?  Who  are 
usually  most  positive  ?  Whal 
has  sometimes  tempted  men 
of  learning  to  adopt  these 
practices  of  the  haughty  and 
ignorant?  When  may  wri- 
ters of  good  sense  be  allowed 
to  use  a  degree  of  assurauco 
and  confidence? 

182 — Should  we  decide  all  ques- 
tions with  one  answer  ?  What 


QUESTIONS. 


^97 


Page. 
is  here  said  of  Cicero  ?   What 
is  the  substance  of  the  twen- 
ty-first rule  ? 

183 — Substance  of  the  twenty- 
second  rule?  What  general 
rule  should  be  observed  ? 

184 — What  direction  cannot  be 
too  often  repeated  ?  Should 
we  be  required  to  give  our  as- 
sent where  we  have  not  suffi- 
cient evidence? 

186 — What  duties  should  exert 
most  influence  over  our  minds'? 

"  What  is  here  said  of  prayer 
and  other  Christian  duties  ? 

lb" — What  is  the  substance  of 
the  fir-t  rule  for  judging  of 
probabilities  ?  Of  the  second  ? 
Of  the  third  ? 

188 — What  is  here  said  of  stand- 
ing firm  in  well  established 
principles?  Should  we  de- 
termine, positively,  things 
wherein  we  may  possibly 
mistake  1  Why  are  we  lia- 
ble to  err  in  our  interpreta- 
tions of  passages  of  scripture  ? 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

189 — Of  what  does  this  chapter 
tcegnil  What  should  first  be 
considered  in  tracing  effects 
to  their  causes  1  What  shtnild 
be  the  second  point  of  inquiry  1 

.90— The  third!  The  fourth  1 
What  should  be  the  first 
point  of  inquiry  in  tracing 
causes  to  their  effects  7 
91— The  second  1  The  third  ? 
The  fourth  1  The  fifth  ?  The 
sixth  ?    What  is  here  said  of 

\   the  practice  of  physicians  ? 

r92 — What  is  said  of  causes 
and  effects  which  are  neces- 
sarily connected  ? 

CHAPTER  XX. 

)2— What  is  the  best  way  to 
le:irn  any  science '! 


Png-e. 

193— To  what  should  studenfe 
apply  themselves?  Are  we 
cipable  of  judging^correclly  of 
a  science  until  we  have  taken 
a  survey  of  the  whole?  Men- 
tion the  illustration  ? 

194 — Why  do  some  persons  cast 
contempt  on  systematic  learn- 
ing? What  should  be  done 
after  learning  a  short  compen- 
dium of  a  science?  When 
sliould  we  take  a  judicious 
review  of  the  whole  1  Why 
do  some  persons  waste  their 
time  in  reading  scientific 
treatises  which  are  of  little 
value? 

195 — When  are  languages  most 
easily  learned .?  W  hat  is  here 
said  of  abstract  sciences  1 
Mention  some  of  the  sciences 
wliich  are  considered  suitable 
for3'oung  children  ?  Mention 
the  first  reason  for  considering 
that  these  sciences  may  be 
pursued  by  those  of  tender 
age  with  ease  and  advantage. 
What  is  the  second  reason  1 
The  third  ?  How  is  it  best  to 
train  up  children  1  What  is 
here  said  of  the  use  of  dia- 
grams, &c.  ? 

196 — How  may  knowledge  thtis 
obtained  be  retained  in  the 
memory  ? 

198 — Who  should  gain  some 
idea  of  most  of  the  sciences  ? 
What  parts  of  science  should 
be  chiefly  studied  at  first? 
Of  whom  should  the  young 
ask  advice?  Name  the  three 
learned  professions.  Who 
should  have  some  knowledge 
of  each  of  these  1 

199— What  is  said  to  be  an  an- 
gelic pleasure?  Mention  some 
of  the  advantages  of  mathe- 
matical studies.  What  are 
often  made  of  admirable  ser- 
vice iii  human  life? 

200— What  are  the  remarks  of 


298 


QUESTIONS. 


PaffC. 

Dr.  Cheyne  in  relation  to  the 
Hhstruse  dei)ths  and  ditticul- 
ties  of  niatheiiiatics  7  What 
iiiiiy  be  made  agreeable  anmse- 
nients  to  all  young  persons? 
201— How  have  many  young 
persons  secured  their  time 
from  running  to  waste,  pre 
vented  foolish  scenes  and 
actions,  and  laid  a  foundation 
for  the  esteem  and  love  of 
mankind?  What  is  said  of 
the  study  of  history  ?  What 
are  called  the  eyes  of  history  V 
What  is  said  of  biography  1 
Mention  some  of  the  l)enetits 
to  be  derived  from  reading 
biography. 
202— What  is  here  said  of  chris- 
tian biographies  ?  Uf  what 
sciences  sliould  all  persons 
have  some  knowledge  ! 
203— What  does  true  logic  teach 
us  ?  Metaphysics  ?  What 
is  here  said  of  the  benefits  to 
be  derived  from  the  study  of 
natural  philosophy,  and  na- 
tural liistory  1 
204 — From  what  may  much 
pleasure  and  profit  be  deriv- 
ed {  What  science  eminent- 
ly belongs  to  physicians  1 
What  is  here  said  of  lawyers  1 
Of  divines? 
205 — What  science  is  here  re- 
presented as  worthy  the  study 
of  a  divine?  Of  what  may 
we  be  irtformed  by  this  sci- 
ence 1 
206— What  is  the  first  part  of 
natural  religion  V  Second 
part  1  What  is  contained 
and  necessarily  implied  in 
revealed  religions  .'  Whom 
should  we  know,  and  what 
are  we  bound  to  jjractice  un- 
der whatever  dispensation  we 
live? 
207— What  is  said  to  be  needful 
to  prove  the  truth  of  divine 
revelation    most  eflectually  ? 


Paffe. 
What  science  is  of  most  im 
porlance  ? 
208— Strictly     speaking,     what 
does   the   civil  law    signify  1 
Whence  did  the  Romans  ob- 
tain their  laws  ?     What  was 
called   the  body  of  the   civil 
law  ?      With  what  law  is  it 
most  important  we  should  be 
acquainted  ?       Who    (kfined 
the  law  of  nature  to  be  "  the  ■ 
knowledge  of  right  and  wrong  ' 
among  men"  ? 

210— Who  is  said  to  be  the  great 
master  of  physicians  ?  With 
what  book  should  theologians 
be  most  conversant  ? 

213 — How  are  all  mankind 
taught  to  speak  their  common 
tongue  ?  What  is  granunar  1 
Rhetoric?  Mention  the  first 
part  of  rhetoric.  The  second. 
The  third. 

214— What  rules  may  be  peru- 
sed and  learned  with  great 
advantage  ?  What  will  do 
more  to  make  an  orator  than 
all  the  mles  of  art  ? 

215— What  is  the  business  of 
divines  ?  How  should  the 
understanding  be  convinced  1 
When  that  is  done  what  mo- 
tives should  be  used  ?  How 
may  the  world  be  restored  to 
virtue  and  happiness  ? 

210 — Mention  the  first  reason 
for  reading  poetry.  The  se- 
cond. What  is  said  of  the 
lyric  ode  ? 

217 — Mention  a  third  reason  for 
reading  jwetry  ? 

218— What  is  here  said  of  Pope? 
Mention  a  fourth  reason  for 
reading  poetry. 

219— Wiiat  is  here  said  of  wri- 
ting poetry  ?  What  is  the 
meaning  of  muse  7  What  is 
necessary  to  enable  us  to  read 
historv  to  advantage  ? 

220— What  is  criticism  ?    What 

I     should  all  critics  remember  ? 


PART  n 


INTRODUCTIOxV. 

Page. 

821— What  has  been  the  chief 
design  of  the  first  part  of  this 
book  ?  What  is  to  be  consid- 
ered in  the  second  parti  Do 
those  who  hoard  up  their  in- 
tellectual treasures  enjoy  the 
greatest  advantage  their  pos- 
session is  capable  of  yielding? 
How  may  intellectual  treas- 
ures be  made  to  giitter  1  Men- 
tion the  two  chief  ways  of 
conveying  knowledge  to  oth- 
ers. 

CHAPTER  I. 

223 — Who  is  generally  best  pre- 
pared to  teach  1  Are  all  good 
scholars  successful  instruc- 
tors 1  W h y  must  a  com pe te n t 
teacher  have  a  good  command 
of  language  1  What  is  said 
of  the  disposition  of  the  teach- 
er 1 

225— What  is  here  said  of  his- 
torical remarks,  and  of  joining 
profit  and  pleasure  1 

226— What  should  be  the  style 
of  instructors  ?  What  is  here 
said  of  questioning  learners  ? 

!J27— To  what  should  teachers 
accommodate  themselves  1 
What  is  here  said  of  curiosi- 


Pa^e. 
ty  1  Of  commendatory'  words  1 

228 — What  course  should  be 
pursued  with  positive  and  pre- 
suming pupils  ?  What  should 
the  teacher  watch  ?  How 
shocld  he  strive  to  instil  know- 
ledge into  the  minds  of  his 
pupils  1  What  faculties  of 
the  mind  should  the  teacher 
endeairor  to  call  into  exercise! 
What  of  uncommon  occur- 
rences ? 

229 — How  may  the  affections 
and  attention  of  pupils  be  se- 
cured 1 


CHAPTER  II. 

229 — Of  what  does  this  chapter 
treat  1  What  style  is  most  fit 
and  useful  for  instrnction  ? 

230— What  is  the  first  error  of 
style  to  be  avoided  1  The 
second  1  What  is  said  of 
learned  terms  ?  What  of  the 
lovers  of  geometry  and  astron- 
omy 1 

231— Mention  a  third  error  to  be 
avoided,     A  fourth.     Fifth. 

232— A  sixth.  What  is  the  first 
method  mentioned  for  acquir- 
ing a  perspicuity  of  style  suit- 
able for  instruction  1  The 
second  ? 


800 


QUESTIONS. 


CHAPTER  III.  Poi 

Page. 

233— The  third  ? 

234— The  fourth  ?  Fifth  1  Sixth  ? 

235— Of  what  should  we  divest 
ourselves  in  order  to  iiroiiiote 
truth  ?  What  should  we  seek 
to  acquire  ?  What  is  the  first 
thing  to  be  observed  ? 

236— The  second  ?  The  third  ? 
What  must  be  flattered  ? 
Why  ? 

237— VVhat  should  we  always 
reiueniber?  Why  should  we 
set  a  constint  w.itch  over  our- 
selves? To  what  is  human 
nature  likened?  What  does 
a  wrathful  spirit  beget  in  oth- 
ers? How  sh  ,uld  we  treat 
opponents?  Why  is  there  sf) 
little  success  in  convincing 
disputants  ? 

238 — May  we  reasonably  hope 
to   convince   others   of    their  24 


mistakes  or  errors  by  persecu 
tion  or  severe  usage '  Car 
men  believe  what  they  will? 
Mention  the  sixth  direction  to 
be  observed  in  convincing  oth- 
ers of  any  truth.  The  seventh. 
The  eighth. 

23»— The  ninth. 

240— The  tenih.  What  is  the 
substance  of  the  first  conclu- 
ding remark? 

241— Of  the  second  ? 


CHAPTER  IV. 

242— Of  what  does  this  chapter 
treat  ?  From  what  sources  do 
we  derive  our  sentiments  and 
belief?  To  what  head  may 
these  influences  be  reduced  ? 

843- What  is  frequently  a  hin- 
drance to  learners?  Why? 
Has  human  authority  any  cer- 
tain and  undoubted  claim  to 
truth?  What  ancient  andi 
long  established  doctrine  was 
refuted  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton  ?| 


What    is    here   said  of    the 
poems  of  Homer  and  Virgil  ? 

244 — What  would  furnish  a 
poem  of  jnst  and  glorious 
scenes  ".  What  must  we  do 
in  many  cases  in  order  to  find 
out  the  truth  ?  What  is  here 
said  of  three  eminent  cases  of 
authority?  What  is  the  case 
first  mentioned  ? 

245  Are  children  bound  toadopt 
all  the  opinions  of  their  pa- 
rents? 

246 — Is  any  individual  or  society 
commissioned  with  authority 
to  dictate  opinions  toothers  of 
mature  years?  In  what  cases 
may  we  be  justly  charged 
with  criminal  sloth  ?  Men- 
tion a  second  case  of  author- 
ity which  must  govern  our  as- 
sent? 

What  is  this  usually  call 


ed  ?  When  shfuild  testimony 
operate  most  forcibly  on  our 
minds  ?  Should  we  readily 
yield  our  assent  to  the  most 
forcible  testimony  without 
fairly  examining  its  claims  to 
credibility  ? 

248-Mention  a  third  case  where- 
in authority  nuist  govern  us. 
Of  whom  is  this  properly  the 
authority?  When  are  all  man 
kind  bound  to  receive  the  doc 
trines  of  divine  revelation? 
Has  God  ever  given  any  reve 
lations  which  are  contrary  to 
the  dictates  of  reason  ? 

249 — Mention,  again,  the  three 
cases  wherein  authority  must 
determine  our  sentiments. 

250— What  is  the  first  case  in 
which  we  should  pay  great 
deference  to  the  authority  and 
sentiments  of  others  ?  The 
second  ?  Third  ?  Fourth  ? 
Fifth  ? 

251 — Under  what  circumstances 
should  we  follow  probabili- 
ties? 


QUESTIONS. 


801 


CHAPTER  V. 

Page. 

251— Why  is  it  so  difficult  to 
convince  otiiers  of  common 
mistakes,  or  to  persuade  tliem 
to  assent  to  plain  and  obvious 
truths  1 

252— What  is  the  first  method 
to  be  practised  in  order  to 
convince  those  whose  preju- 
dices are  strong  1 

253— The  second  1 

254 — What  were  the  principles 
of  the  Peripatetics  ?  What 
was  the  belief  of  the  Platon- 
istsl  How  may  these  be- 
lievers in  substantial  forms 
and  a  universal  soul,  be  led  to 
give  up  their  notions  1  How 
may  a  person  be  convinced  of 
his  error,  who  is  fully  per- 
suaded there  is  nothing  but 
what  has  length,  breadth,  and 
thickness  7 

256— Why  may  we  ever  dis- 
pense with  the  rule  which 
requires  different  ideas  to  be 
expressed  by  different  words  ? 
What  is  the  third  method  to 
be  practised  ? 

CHAPTER  VI. 

260 — Mention  the  principal  ideas 
advanced  in  the  first  section 
of  this  chapter. 

265— What  are  the  chief  ideas 
advanced  in  the  second  sec- 
tion ? 

267 — What  ideas  are  advanced 
in  section  third  1 

CHAPTER  Vn. 
272 — Of  what  should  every  wri- 
ter observe  a  just  mediiun?! 


Paffe. 
What  will  teach  us  when  to 
explfin,  define,  &c.  ? 

273 — What  rule  of  Horace  is 
here  given  7 

274 — On  what  should  the  study, 
time,  and  labor  of  every  wri- 
ter be  chiefly  employed  ? 
What  is  here  said  of  consult- 
ing the  opinions  of  others, 
and  reviewing  our  own  pro- 
ductions 1 

276 — How  may  we  obtain  hints 
for  improving  our  own  wri- 
tings ? 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

276— What  should  be  the  first 
thing  done  by  a  good  writer  on 
any  controverted  subject  ? 
The  second  ?  The  third  ? 
What  will  be  the  course  of  an 
able  opponent  ? 

277 — If  the  first  writer  answers 
his  opponent  in  an  able  man- 
ner, what  may  the  reader  gen- 
erally presume  ?  What  is 
usually  the  eflect  of  greatly 
prolonged  controversies  ? 

278 — What  exception  is  here 
given  ?    Substance  of  note  ? 

279 — How  should  the  sincere 
searcher  for  truth  survey 
every  argument  1  What  is 
the  best  way  to  try  the  force 
of  arguments  which  are 
brought  against  our  opinions  1 
What  if  we  find  arguments 
which  we  are  not  able  to  an- 
swer 1 

280— What  is  here  said  of  Vola- 
tilis? 


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